OPERATION 
C  ARE™;  REP  AIR 

^AUTOMOBILES 


r 


I 


r 


The  Livingston  Radiator 


is  not  an  imitation  of,  but  a  wonderfully  effi- 
cient improvement  over,  the  square  tube  type. 

Scientifically  and  practically  correct  in  prin- 
ciple and  construction. 

The  lapped,  seamed,  swaged  edges  of  our 
patented  tubes  produce  thin  edges  to  the  air 
ducts,  resulting  in  a  frontal  area  of  only  J3%  of 
the  total  as  against  the  50%  usually  found  in 
the  square  tube  type. 

IF  YOU  DOUBT  THIS,  FIGURE  IT 
OUT    FOR    YOURSELF 

C.  Live  circulation  in  horizontal  as  well  as 
vertical  water  channels.  See  cut.  Equal  circu- 
lation in  all  tubes. 

C£  The  lapped,  seamed  edge  is  the  strongest 
possible  construction. 

C£  All  water  in  moving  contact  with  entire 
radiating  surface. 

C.  Sixty-four  square  inches  of  radiating  sur- 
face for  each  square  inch  of  frontal  area. 

CL  Combined  area  of  water  passages  equal  to 
15  square  inches. 

C,  The  radiating  section  and  frame  built  of 
separate  units,  then  assembled. 

C.  All  rivets  protected  on  the  interior  by  a 
flexible  metal  covering. 

C.  All  joints  of  frames  reinforced  by  brass 
castings  of  proper  shape  in  addition  to  long 
laps. 

C,  Absence  of  spacing  wires  permits  the 
lightest  known  construction. 

C.  The  great  strength,  lightness  and  efficiency 
especially  adapt  these  Radiators  to  aeroplane 
work. 


LIVINGSTON  RADIATORS MF6.CO.,INC. 

312  West  52d  Street,  New  York  City 


I 


THE  ECONOMY  OF  IT 

The  possibility  of  spring  breakage  is  removed  as 
soon  as  the 

TRUFFAULT-HARTFORD 
SHOCK  ABSORBER 

is  put  on  a  car. 

The  ravages  of  vibration,  the  racking  it  causes 
every  bolt,  nut  and  part,  cease. 

In  actual  figures  the  use  of  the  Truffault-Hartford 
decreases  depreciation  through  wear  and  tear  50  per  cent. 

That's  the  economy  of  it.  It  is  a  matter  of  dollars  and 
cents  to  have  your  car  Truffault-Hartford  equipped. 

If  you  cannot  have  a  set  put  on  at  the  factory,  have 
it  done  at  the  garage. 

The  motorist  who  looks  to  comfort  and  economy  must 
realize  the  absolute  necessity  of  having  his  car  Truffault- 
Hartford  equipped.  A  car  that  is  jarred  is  necessarily 
racked,  and  constant  racking  means  a  quick  finish.  The 
Truffault-Hartford  Shock  Absorber  absorbs  the  jolt;  it 
absorbs  the  vibration;  it  nullifies  the  discomfort  to  the 
car's  passengers.  Its  use  makes  the  car  run  smootherjast 
longer.  It  saves  your  feelings,  saves  your  pocketbook. 

THREE  MODELS: 

Standard,  160         Intermediate,  $45         Junior,  $25 

Price  includes  fittings  for  making  the  application  to  any  car. 

HARTFORD  SUSPENSION  COMPANY 

E.  V.  HARTFORD,  Pres.         158  Bay  Street,  JERSEY  CITY,  N.  J. 


The  Operation,  Care  and 
Repair  of  Automobiles 


EDITED  FROM  THE  FILES  OF  THE  HORSELESS  AGE 

By  ALBERT  L  GLOUGH 


REVISED  EDITION 


Copyrighted,  1910,  by  THE  HORSELESS  ACE  COMPANY 


Published    by 

THE  HORSELESS  AGE  COMPANY 

MOTOR  HALL 

254  West  54th  Street 

New  York  City 


IGNITION. 


It  is  a  matter  of  common  experience  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
attention  required  in  the  care  and  maintenance  of  automobiles  is  de- 
manded by  their  ignition  apparatus.  In  order  to  be  able  successfully  to 
cope  with  the  difficulties  arising  from  failures  of  ignition  it  is  desirable 
not  only  to  understand  the  general  construction  and  mode  of  action  of 
the  various  pieces  of  ignition  apparatus,  but  to  possess  a  working  knowl- 
edge of  the  cardinal  principles  of  electricity  and  magnetism.  The  follow- 
ing elementary  considerations  are  therefore  presented. 


General   Electrical   Principles. 

Electricity  is  a  form  of  energy  that  makes  itself  manifest  to  the  senses 
by  its  mechanical,  thermal  and  chemical  effects.  For  most  practical  pur- 
poses it  may  be  regarded  as  a  fluid  that  flows  through  bodies  of  certain 
materials  called  conductors  as  water  flows  through  pipes.  Just  the  same 
as  water  in  flowing  through  pipes  encounters  a  frictional  resistance,  so 
an  electric  current  in  flowing  through  a  conductor  encounters  a  resistance. 
The  frictional  resistance  of  a  certain  pipe  to  the  flow  of  water  through 
it  depends  upon  the  length  and  diameter  of  the  pipe  and  upon  the  rela- 
tive smoothness  of  its  bore.  Similarly,  the  resistance  of  a  conductor 
to  the  flow  of  electricity  through  it  depends  upon  the  length  and  cross 
sectional  area  of  the  conductor  and  upon  the  material  from  which  the 
conductor  is  made.  The  best  conducting  material  is  the  precious  metal, 
silver.  Copper,  however,  in  its  pure  state  is  nearly  equally  conductive, 
and  is  the  best  conductor  from  a  commercial  standpoint.  Iron  offers 
about  eight  times  the  resistance  of  copper,  and  is  used  to  some  extent 
in  practice  where  the  greater  bulk  of  the  conductor  is  of  no  consequence 
and  the  greater  tensile  strength  of  iron  is  an  advantage,  as  in  telephone 
and  telegraph  lines.  The  conductivity  of  a  material  is  the  inverse  of 
its  resistivity;  that  is,  if  a  material  has  a  high  conductivity,  it  has  a 
low  resistivity,  and  vice  versa. 

All  materials  conduct  electricity  to  some  extent,  and  all  are,  there- 
fore, conductors  in  one  sense.  However,  some  are  such  poor  conductors 
that  their  conducting  power  is  entirely  negligible  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses. These  very  poor  conductors,  which  are  of  as  great  importance 
in  the  industrial  application  of  electricity  as  the  very  good  conductors, 
are  called  insulators.  Among  the  best  insulating  materials  are  glass, 
porcelain,  hard  rubber,  ebonite,  niica  and  silk. 

In  the  present  articles  electrical  phenomena  will  be  explained  by 
hydraulic  phenomena — that  is,  phenomena  of  flowing  water — which  are 
familiar  to  everyone.  Almost  every  electrical  phenomenon  can  be  thus 
explained  in  simple  language  easily  comprehended  by  the  lay  mind. 


Water  flows  under  the  influence  of  the  force  of  gravity  from  a  higher 
point  to  a  lower,  provided  there  is  an  unobstructed  path  for  the  flow 
between  these  two  points.  The  flow  is  then  said  to  be  due  to  a  difference 
of  level  between  the  two  points.  Similarly,  an  electric  flow  or  current 
in  a  conductor  is  due  to  a  difference  of  electrical  level  or  a  difference  of 
potential,  as  it  is  known  technically.  In  nature  water  is  continually 
raised  by  the  process  of  evaporation,  and  in  a  similar  manner  high 
electrical  potentials  are  occasionally  created  by  meteorological  processes. 
In  practice,  however,  if  we  want  water  at  a  high  level  in  order  to  create 
a  flow,  we  usually  find  it  necessary  to  raise  it  there  by  means  of  a  pump. 
Similarly,  if  we  desire  to  produce  a  high  electrical  potential  in  order  to 
obtain  an  electrical  current,  we  must  make  use  of  an  apparatus  capable 
of  creating  a  difference  of  potential.  Such  an  apparatus  is  ordinarily 
called  a  source  of  electromotive  force.  The  terms  "difference  of  poten- 
tial" and  "electromotive  force"  are  almost  synonymous.  They  bear  to 
each  other  about  the  same  relation  as  "difference  of  level"  and  "pressure" 
in  hydraulics.  As  is  well  known,  a  certain  difference  in  water  level  cor- 
responds to  a  certain  definite  pressure  per  square  inch,  so  that  for  many 
purposes  "difference  of  level"  expresses  the  same  thing  as  "pressure  per 
square  inch,"  although  fundamentally  these  terms  express  different  things. 
This  difference  between  the  two  electrical  terms  is  particularly  to  be 
noted:  If  there  is  simply  a  difference  of  potential  between  two  points, 
this  is  wiped  out  as  soon  as  the  points  are  connected  by  a  conductor;  but 
if  there  is  an  electromotive  force  active  between  them,  the  difference  of 
potential  will  be  maintained  between  the  points,  even  if  they  be  con- 
nected by  a  conductor. 

The  two  factors  which  control  all  hydraulic  phenomena  are  the  pres- 
sure of  flow  and  the  rate  of  flow.  In  a  waterfall,  for  instance,  the  power 
depends  upon  the  number  of  feet  of  fall,  and  also  upon  the  number  of 
gallons  or  tons  of  water  per  minute  passing  through  the  fall.  Similarly 
the  power  in  an  electric  circuit  depends  upon  the  pressure  (electromotive 
force)  and  on  the  rate  of  flow  (current)  in  the  circuit.  In  order  that 
an  electric  current  can  flow  at  all  these  two  conditions  must  be  fulfilled : 

(1)  there  must  be  a  complete  or  closed  circuit  of  conducting  material; 

(2)  a  source  of  electromotive  force  must  be  incorporated  in  this  circuit. 
Electricians  generally  distinguish  between  static  electricity  and  current 

electricity.  There  is  in  reality  only  one  kind  of  electricity,  the  distinction 
being  based  upon  the  fact  that  phenomena  in  which  extremely  high  electric 
pressures  and  very  small  quantities  of  electricity  are  involved  are  rather 
different  in  their  manifestations  from  those  in  which  both  the  pressure 
and  the  current  are  of  normal  value.  Electrostatic  effects  are  really 
effects  of  extremely  high  electrical  pressures.  As  the  quantities  of  elec- 
tricity involved  in  electrostatic  phenomena  are  extremely  small,  the  power 
involved  is  small,  and  these  phenomena  can  be  produced  by  means  of 
frictional  electric  machines  and  induction  machines  as  used  by  physicians 
and  for  experimental  work,  these  machines  being  generally  turned  by 
hand.  Sparks  produced  by  such  frictional  machines  were  used  for  igni 
tion  by  some  of  the  early  gas  engine  experimenters,  but  as  these  machines 
are  not  now  used  for  this  purpose  we  need  not  consider  them  any  further. 
Every  conductor  has  a  certain  capacity  for  storing  electricity,  as  every 


vessel  has  a  certain  capacity  for  storing  a  liquid.  The  electrical  capacity 
of  a  conductor,  however,  does  not  depend  upon  its  cubical  contents,  but 
upon  its  surface  area.  The  amount  of  electric  charge  that  can  be  stored 
in  a  certain  conductor  depends  also  upon  the  pressure  at  which  the 
charge  is  supplied  to  the  conductor  and  upon  the  surroundings  of  the 
conductor.  When  it  is  desired  to  store  a  comparatively  large  charge — 
such  a  charge,  for  instance,  as  is  involved  in  an  ignition  spark — use  is 
made  of  what  is  known  as  an  electric  condenser.  A  condenser  in  its 
simplest  form  consists  of  two  thin  sheets  of  conducting  material,  separated 
either  by  a  thin  layer  of  air  or  of  some  other  insulating  material.  The 
capacity  of  such  a  condenser  depends  upon  the  surface  area  of  the 
sheets,  on  their  distance  apart  (the  closer  together  they  are  the  greater 
the  capacity),  and  on  the  nature  of  the  separating  material,  which  is  called 
the  dielectric.  Among  the  best  dielectrics  are  mica,  glass  and  paraffin. 
Commercial  condensers  are  built  up  of  a  large  number  of  sheets  of 
conducting  material  (usually  tinfoil)  separated  one  from  the  other  by  a 
sheet  of  insulating  material  (usually  paraffined  paper  or  mica),  alter- 
nating sheets  of  conducting  material  being  connected  together  to  the 
same  terminal  post  of  the  condenser,  so  that  all  the  even  sheets  are 
connected  to  one  terminal  post  and  all  the  odd  ones  to  the  other.  The 
capacity  of  such  a  condenser  is  proportional  to  the  number  of  plates.  If 
the  two  terminals  of  such  a  condenser  are  connected  to  the  two  terminals 
of  a  source  of  electromotive  force,  a  charge  flows  into  the  condenser, 
the  amount  of  the  charge  being  directly  proportional  to  the  pressure  of 
the  source  of  electromotive  force  and  to  the  capacity  of  the  condenser. 
When  the  source  of  electromotive  .force  is  disconnected  from  the  con- 
denser, the  charge  remains  in  the  condenser,  and  if  the  pressure  of  charge 
was  sufficiently  high,  by  connecting  a  conductor  to  one  terminal  of  the 
condenser  and  bringing  its  other  end  near  the  other  terminal  of  the  con- 
denser, a  spark  will  pass  at  this  gap  and  the  condenser  will  be  discharged. 
Detailed  descriptions  of  condensers  will  be  given  later  on. 


Chemical    Effects    of    the    Electric    Current— Units    of 
Measurement— Ohm's     Law— Chemical     Generators. 

When  the  ends  of  two  wires  connected  to  a  source  of  electromotive 
force  are  inserted  into  a  glassful  of  slightly  acidulated  water,  a  current 
will  pass  through  the  water  from  one  wire  to  the  other  and  gas  bubbles 
will  form  and  rise  from  the  surface  of  both  wires.  Acidulated  water  is 
thus  a  conductor  of  electricity.  The  gases  formed  at  the  surfaces  of  the 
two  wires  are  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  the  components  of  water.  In  mak- 
ing this  experiment  it  will  be  observed  that  the  quantity  of  gas  given 
off  at  the  two  wires  (called  in  this  case  electrodes)  is  not  the  same. 
The  hydrogen  is  given  off  in  much  greater  quantity  than  the  oxygen, 
and  as  the  oxygen  is  evolved  at  the  positive  pole  or  the  wire  where  the 
current  enters  the  liquid,  and  the  hydrogen  at  the  negative  pole,  where 
the  current  leaves  the  liquid,  this  apparatus  admits  of  determining  the 
direction  of  flow  of  the  current.  Conductors  which  in  conducting  a  cur- 
rent are  decomposed  by  it  are  called  electrolytes.  Electrolytes  include 


many  solutions  of  metallic  salts.  One  of  the  most  familiar  electrolytes 
is  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate.  When  this  solution  is  decomposed  in 
the  electrolytic  bath,  metallic  copper  is  deposited  on  the  negative  elec- 
trode and  gases  accumulate  on  the  positive  electrode.  In  all  electrolytic 
work  the  metal  radical  of  the  electrolyte  travels  with  the  current  through 
the  bath  and  is  deposited  on  or  liberated  at  the  negative  electrode. 

The  rate  at  which  either  component  of  a  given  electrolyte  is  liberated 
depends  directly  upon  the  current  strength,  and  the  decomposition  of 
electrolytes  therefore  lends  itself,  by  weighing  the  deposit  of  metal  ob- 
tained in  a  certain  time,  to  the  measurement  of  current  strength.  The 
unit  in  terms  of  which  the  strength  of  electric  currents  is  expressed  is 
the  ampere,  which  is  the  current  necessary  to  deposit  0.00113  gram  of 
silver  per  second  from  a  bath  of  silver  nitrate  in  water.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  this  unit  of  current  is  based  upon  the  metric  system  of 
measurements,  and  so  are  all  electric  and  magnetic  units.  The  above 
constant,  0.00113,  is  called  the  electrochemical  equivalent  of  silver,  being 
the  amount  liberated  by  one  ampere  in  one  second.  Each  element  has  a 
different  electrochemical  equivalent,  and  those  metals  which,  like  copper, 
form  two  sets  of  combinations  have  two  electrochemical  equivalents. 
The  electrochemical  equivalent  of  copper  in  cupric  combinations  is  .000327 
and  in  cuprous  combinations  .000654. 

OHM'S   LAW. 

Before  proceeding  any  further  we  must  make  mention  of  a  most 
simple  and  widely  applicable  law  of  electric  phenomena  named,  after  its 
discoverer,  Ohm's  law.  It  is  to  the  effect  that  the  current  in  an  electric 
circuit  is  directly  proportional  to  the  electromotive  force  active  in  that 
circuit  and  inversely  proportional  to  the  resistance  of  the  circuit.  In 
other  words,  if  all  three  factors  are  expressed  in  units  of  the  same 
system,  the  current  is  equal  to  the  electromotive  force  divided  by  the 
resistance.  Ohm's  law  is  generally  written  as  follows: 

E.  M.  F. 

Current  = 

Resistance. 

There  are  two  variations  of  this  equation  which  may  be  deduced  directly 
from  it;  they  are, 

E.  M.  F.  =  Current  x  Resistance ; 
E.  M.  F. 

Resistance  = 

Current. 

We  have  seen  how  current  can  be  measured  and  how  the  unit  of 
measurement,  the  ampere,  has  been  determined.  The  unit  of  resistance, 
the  ohm,  is  the  resistance  of  a  column  of  mercury  of  one  square  millimetre 
cross  section  and  106.3  centimetres  in  length,  at  the  temperature  of  melt- 
ing ice.  The  temperature  is  here  specified  because  the  electrical  resistance 
of  most  conductors  increases  with  an  increase  in  temperature.  The  unit 
of  electromotive  force,  the  volt,  is  that  electromotive  force  which  will 
cause  a  current  of  one  ampere  to  flow  through  a  resistance  of  one  ohm. 

Just  as  in  mechanical  motion  against  a  friction  heat  is  developed,  so 
heat  is  generated  whenever  an  electric  current  flows  through  a  circuit.  In 
both  cases  the  heat  produced  represents  a  loss,  unless  the  mechanical 


movement  or  the  electric  current  is  produced  for  heating  purposes.  In 
an  electric  circuit  the  heat  produced  in  overcoming  the  resistance  is  pro- 
portional to  the  square  of  the  current  and  to  the  resistance,  which  may 
be  expressed  as  an  algebraic  equation  by  H  =  C2R.  This  principle  is  also 
sometimes  employed  for  measuring  electric  currents,  in  combination  with 
the  law  that  heat  expands  all  bodies. 

ELECTRIC   GENERATORS. 

There  are  two  sources  of  electromotive  force  or  current  in  general 
commercial  use.  In  the  first  type,  known  as  chemical  generators  or  bat- 
teries, the  electric  current  is  produced  by  the  combination  of  certain 
chemical  elements,  thus  transforming  the  chemical  energy  stored  up  in 
these  elements  into  electrical  energy.  In  the  second  class,  called  mechanical 
generators,  the  electric  energy  is  induced  in  wires  by  the  motion  within 
a  magnetic  field  of  some  rotary  part  to  which  mechanical  energy  must 
be  applied.  In  the  latter  case,  therefore,  mechanical  energy  of  motion  is 
transformed  into  electrical  energy.  We  will  first  consider  the  former 
kind  of  generators. 

The  simplest  form  of  chemical  cell  consists  of  a  rod  of  zinc  and  a  rod 
of  copper  immersed  in  a  bath  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  When  the  upper, 
exposed  ends  of  the  two  rods  are  connected  by  a  wire,  a  current  will 
flow  from  the  copper  rod  through  the  wire  to  the  zinc  rod,  and  as  a 
current  makes  always  a  complete  circuit,  it  flows  inside  the  cell  from 
the  zinc  rod  to  the  copper  rod.  The  copper  rod  is  called  the  positive 
pole  and  the  zinc  rod  the  negative,  because  the  current  flows  from  the 
copper  and  returns  to  the  zinc.  There  is,  of  course,  a  certain  chemical 
action  going  on  inside  the  cell  to  which  the  current  is  due,  and  this 
chemical  action  is  the  combination  of  zinc  with  the  sulphate  radical  of 
the  sulphuric  acid,  forming  zinc  sulphate  which  goes  into  solution.  If 
at  the  end  of  a  period  of  activity  the  cell  be  examined,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  zinc  has  been  "eaten"  away,  and  if  the  electrolyte  be  then 
evaporated  the  familiar  white  powder,  zinc  sulphate,  will  remain.  The 
copper  rod  does  not  take  any  active  part  in  the  generation  of  the  current, 
and  serves  only  as  a  terminal  for  collecting  the  current  from  the  electro- 
lyte. It  is  not  consumed  and  may  be  used  indefinitely,  while  both  the 
zinc  and  electrolyte  are  consumed  and  must  be  renewed  from  time  to 
time.  The  copper  rod  may  be  advantageously  replaced  with  a  rod  of 
gas  carbon. 

A  cell  in  which  zinc  is  reduced  to  zinc  sulphate  gives  an  electromotive 
force  of  about  iJ/2  volts,  irrespective  of  the  size  of  the  cell.  The  size  of 
the  cell  determines,  however,  the  current  that  may  be  taken  from  it,  and 
as  the  power  in  an  electric  circuit  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  electro- 
motive force  and  the  current,  the  electrical  power  obtainable  from  a  cell 
depends  upon  its  size,  as  would  be  expected. 
POLARIZATION. 

The  above  described  simple  cell  is  never  used  in  practice,  for  the 
reason  that  if  a  considerable  current  is  taken  from  it  its  power  soon 
decreases.  The  generation  of  the  current  breaks  up  the  sulphuric  acid 
into  a  sulphate  radical  which  combines  with  the  zinc,  and  nascent  hydro- 
gen which  accumulates  on  and  adheres  to  the  copper  or  carbon  electrode. 
It  prevents  a  proper  contact  of  this  electrode  with  the  electrolyte  over 


its  entire  surface,  thus  increasing  the  internal  resistance  of  the  cell,  and 
also  sets  up  a  counter  electromotive  force,  thereby  reducing  the  current 
which  the  cell  will  furnish  with  a  given  outside  resistance.  This  phe- 
nomenon is  known  under  the  name  of  polarization.  It  can  be  prevented 
by  the  addition  to  the  cell  of  some  chemical  substance  which  readily 
combines  with  nascent  hydrogen.  Such  chemicals  are  nitric  acid,  bichro- 
mate of  potash,  manganese  dioxid^,  etc.,  which  are  known  as  depolarizers. 
These  depolarizers  combine  with  the  hydrogen  as  fast  as  it  is  generated, 
and  thus  allow  of  the  electric  generation  going  on  continuously. 


Magnetism. 

A  magnet  is  a  body  which  has  the  power  of  attracting  certain  other 
bodies  called  paramagnetic.  The  most  important  paramagnetic  substances 
are  iron  and  its  various  combinations.  Nickel  and  cobalt  are  also  slightly 
paramagnetic,  but  do  not  possess  this  property  to  a  sufficient  degree 
to  affect  their  commercial  values.  There  are  two  kinds  of  magnets, 
viz.,  permanent  and  temporary  magnets.  The  former  retain  the  power 
of  attracting  paramagnetic  (magnetic  for  short)  substances  permanently, 
while  the  latter  retain  it  only  so  long  as  a  magnetizing  force  is  applied. 
Permanent  magnets  can  only  be  made  of  hardened  steel,  tungsten  steel 
being  the  best  for  this  purpose,  because  it  retains  the  magnetism  best. 
In  practice  permanent  magnets  are  usually  found  in  two  forms,  bar 
magnets  and  horseshoe  magnets. 

When  a  magnet  is  freely  suspended  it  takes  up  a  certain  definite  posi- 
tion.    A  bar  magnet  (Fig.  i),  for  instance,  will  point  substantially  north 
and  south.     The  end  of  the  magnet  pointing  toward  the  north  is  called 
the  north,  or  positive,  pole,  and  the  end  pointing  toward  the  south   is 
called  the  south,  or   negative,  pole.     Every  magnet,  of  whatever  shape, 
has  these  two  poles,  and  if  a  magnet  is 
broken    into    two    or   more    pieces    each 
piece   again    has    a   north    aad   a    south 
pole.     The    reason    a   magnet   takes   up 
a  certain  definite  direction  when  freely 
FIG.   I.— BAR  MAGNET.  suspended    is    that 'the    earth    itself    is 

a  permanent  magnet,  having  its  mag- 
netic north  pole  in  the  regions  near  the  North  Pole,  and  its  magnetic 
south  pole  opposite,  and  it  is  a  law  of  magnets  that  poles  of  unlike  sign 
attract  and  poles  of  like  sign  repel  each  other.  The  force  of  attraction 
and  repulsion  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  strength  of  the  two  poles, 
respectively,  divided  by  the  square  of  the  distance  between  them. 

As  there  is  an  attractive  and  repulsive  force  between  magnets  at  a 
distance  from  each  other,  and  an  attractive  force  between  a  magnet  and 
an  unmagnetized  magnetic  body,  it  is  obvious  that  the  magnetic  force 
of  a  magnet  pervades  the  surrounding  space.  It  is  also  found  by  experi- 
ment that  at  any  given  point  in  the  surroundings  of  a  magnet  the  at- 
tractive or  repulsive  force  has  a  definite  direction.  If  a  small  magnetic 
needle,  freely  suspended,  be  brought  close  to  the  north  pole  of  a  large  bar 
magnet  and  then  be  moved  away  along  the  path  indicated  at  any  moment 


FIG.  2. — HORSESHOE 
MAGNET. 


by  its  direction,  it  will  finally  arrive  at  the  south  pole  of  the  bar  mag- 
net. This  experiment  has  led  to  the  conception  of  magnetic  lines  of 
force  which  emanate  from  the  north  pole  of 
a  magnet  and  pass  through  the  surrounding 
atmosphere  to  the  south  pole.  The  space  sur- 
rounding a  magnet  in  which  there  is  an  appre- 
ciable magnetic  effect  is  called  a  magnetic  field. 
The  lines  of  force  which  pass  through  the 
atmosphere  from  the  north  pole  to  the  south 
pole  pass  through  the  magnet  from  the  south 
pole  to  the  north  pole,  thus  forming  a  com- 
plete circuit.  Magnetic  lines  of  force  follow 
very  much  the  same  laws  as  electric  currents. 
The  total  number  of  lines,  which  corresponds 
to  the  current,  depends  directly  upon  the  "mag- 
neto motive  force"  of  the  magnet  and  inversely 
upon  the  magnetic  resistance  of  the  circuit. 
The  magnetic  resistance  is  much  greater  for  the  air  portion  of  the  cir- 
cuit than  for  the  steel  portion,  and  this  explains  the  superiority  for  many 
purposes  of  the  horseshoe  magnet  (Fig.  2)  over  the  bar  magnet,  as  in 
the  horseshoe  magnet  the  length  of  the  magnetic  path  through  the  air 
is  relatively  short.  In  order  that  a  permanent  magnet  may  well  retain 
its  magnetism  the  magnet  must  be  very  long  in  proportion  to  its  cross 
section,  its  poles  must  be  close  together  and  the  opposed  polar  surfaces 
must  be  relatively  large. 

The  lines  of  force  extending  between  the  poles  of  a  magnet  may  be 
well  illustrated  by  a  simple  experiment.  A  magnet  is  laid  on  the  table 
and  at  a  short  distance  above  it  is  held  a  sheet  of  white  paper  soaked 
with  molten  paraffin,  which  paper  is  shaken  while  a  bagful  of  fine  iron 
filings  is  slowly  poured  onto  it  from  a  certain  height.  Each  iron  filing 
arranges  itself  with  its  length  in  the  direction  of  the  lines  of  force,  and 
when  the  experiment  is  completed  a  perfect  map  of  the  magnetic  field 
is  obtained,  as  shown  by  the  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  4). 

A  permanent  magnet  may  be  produced  by  drawing  a  piece  of  hard- 
ened steel  over  one  pole  of  another  permanent  magnet.  This  method, 
however,  does  not  give  very  satisfactory  results,  as  magnets  thus  made 
are  not  very  powerful.  The  method  now  generally  employed  is  that 
known  as  electric  magnetization  (Fig.  3). 

By  bringing  a  magnetic  needle  into  the  vicinity  of  a  conductor  carry- 
ing an  electric  current  it  will  be  found  that  the  needle  tends  to  set  itself 
at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  current  flow,  thus  indicating  that  an 
electric  current  has  a  magnetic  effect.  In  fact,  a  conductor  carrying  an 
electric  current  is  surrounded  by  circular  magnetic  lines  of  force.  The 
magnetic  effect  of  a  current  can  be 
made  very  powerful  by  forming  the 
conductor,  or  wire,  into  a  coil  of 
many  turns,  in  which  case  all  the 
lines  -of  force  pass  through  the  coil 


and  return  on  the  outside.     Such   a 


FIG.  3. — ELECTRIC  MAGNETIZATION. 


coil  behaves  exactly  like  a  magnet,  and  when  freely  suspended  takes  up 


a    position    with    its    axis    extending    north    and    south.      The    magnetic 
strength  is  proportional  to  the  number  of  turns  in  the  coil  and  the  cur- 
rent flowing  through  it.     If  a  hardened  steel  bar  or  horseshoe  is  inserted 
into  the  coil  while  the  current  is  flowing  it  becomes  at  once  magnetized, 
and  by  using  a  large  number  of  turns  in  the  coil  and  a  strong  current 
a  very  powerful  magnet  can  be  thus  produced.     After  the  bar  or  horse- 
shoe is  withdrawn  or  the  current  is  stopped  it  retains  a  considerable  por- 
tion, though  not  all,  of  the  magnetism  thus 
imparted  to  it.     It  is  a  permanent  magnet. 
The    strength    of    permanent    magnets    de- 
creases in  the  course  of  time,  and  is  very 
detrimentally  affected  by  shocks  and  heat. 
If,  instead  of  a  hardened  steel  bar  or 
horseshoe,   one   of   soft   iron   or   steel   had 
been  inserted  into  the  coil,  an  even  stronger 
magnet  would  have  been  obtained,  but  the 
magnetism  of  such  a  piece  of  soft  iron  or 
steel    immediately    vanishes    almost    com- 
pletely when  the  current  is  stopped  or  the 
piece   is   withdrawn    from   the   coil.     Tem- 
?//)'!{      porary  magnets  are  thus  made    from  soft 
wrought  iron,  steel  or  cast  iron.     They  are 
of    very   great   importance   in    the    genera- 
tion, control  and  application  of  electricity. 
It  may  be  added  that  in  the  case  of  elec- 
tric magnetization  the  polarity  of  the  re- 
sulting  magnet   always   depends   upon   the 
direction   of    flow   of   current   through   the 

coil.  If  the  coil  be  regarded  as  a  screw  and  the  current  flows  through 
it  in  the  direction  the  screw  is  turned,  then  the  north  pole  will  be  in 
that  direction  toward  which  the  screw  would  advance. 


. 

' A 

THE  HORSELESS  ME 

FIG.  4. — MAGNETIC  FIELD  OF 

HORSESHOE  MAGNET. 


EIectro=Magnetic   Induction. 

When  a  magnet  is  inserted  into  or  withdrawn  from  a  coil  (Fig.  5), 
an  electromotive  force  is  induced  in  the  coil,  and  if  the  coil  forms  a 
closed  circuit  a  wave  of  current  is  caused  to  flow  through  it.  The  electro- 
motive force  lasts  only  so  long  as  the  relative  position  of  the  coil  and 
the  magnet  is  changing,  and  its  direction  is  opposite  for  approach  and 
recession.  By  closing  the  pircuit  of  the  coil  through  a  current  indicator 
or  galvanometer,  the  current  impulses  as  the  magnet  is  brought  nearer 
to  *or  removed  farther  from  the  coil  can  be  directly  observed.  The  same 
effect  can  be  secured  by  substituting  for  the  magnet  a  coil  through  which 
a  current  from  some  outside  source,  such  as  a  battery,  is  flowing.  By 
placing  the  two  coils  with  their  axes  coincident  and  approaching  and 
separating  alternately,  current  impulses  will  be  generated  in  the  second 
coil,  although  this  coil  has  absolutely  no  connection  with  the  other  coil, 
which  receives  its  current  from  an  outside  source.  This  effect  is  known 
as  electro-magnetic  induction,  and  was  discovered  by  Faraday  in  1831. 


10 


E    HOUSELESS  AGE 


FIG.  5.— ILLUSTRATING  ELECTRO- 
MAGNETIC INDUCTION. 


When  a  magnet  is  placed  with  jts  axis  coinciding  with  that  of  a  coil, 
at  a  slight  distance  from  the  coil,  some  of  the  lines  of  force  emanating 
from  the  poles  of  the  magnet  will  pass  through  the  coil  and  return  on 
the  outside,  thus  looping  the  spires,  turns  or  convolutions  of  the  coil. 
When  the  magnet  is  brought  nearer  the  coil  the  number  of  lines  of  force 
passing  through  the  coil  increases, 
and  when  the  magnet  is  moved  far- 
ther away  from  the  coil  the  number 
of  lines  of  force  passing  through  the 
coil  decreases.  The  total  number  of 
lines  of  force  emanating  from  the 
north  pole  and  returning  to  the  south 
pole  of  the  magnet  remains  the 
same,  but  as  the  magnet  approaches 
closer  to  the  coil  an  increased  pro- 
portion of  the  lines  link  the  convolu- 
tions of  the  coil,  and  it  is  this  link- 
ing or  cutting  of  magnetic  lines  of 
force  by  electric  conductors  which 
is  the  cause  of  the  phenomenon  of 
electro-magnetic  induction.  When- 
ever an  electric  conductor  moves  in 

a  magnetic  field  at  an  angle  to  the  magnetic  lines  of  force,  so  as  to  cut 
these  lines,  an  electromotive  force  is  induced  in  the  conductor,  and  if 
the  conductor  forms  a  closed  circuit  a  current  is  caused  to  flow  in  it. 
The  electromotive  force  induced  depends  upon  the  rate  at  which  lines 
of  force  are  cut.  If  100,000,000  are  cut  per  second,  the  electromotive 
force  is  one  volt. 

SELF   INDUCTION. 

When   a   current  is   flowing  through  a  coil  of  wire  a  magnetic  field 
is  set  up   in   the   surrounding  space,  as  has  already  been  explained.     If 

now  the  current  is  stopped 
the  magnetic  field  will,  of 
course,  also  cease.  Now, 
the  effect  upon  the  coil  of 
the  removal  of  this  mag- 
netic field  is  exactly  the 
same  as  if  the  field  had 
been  due  to  an  outside 
magnet ;  in  other  words, 
an  electric  impulse  is  in- 
duced in  the  coil  by  the 
very  dying  out  of  the  cur- 
rent in  it,  and  this  im- 
pulse is  in  the  same  direc- 
tion as  the  current  in  the 
coil.  The  result  is  that 
when  the  circuit  is  broken 

to  stop  the  current,  the  decrease  in  the  current  adds  momentarily  to  the 
electromotive  force  active  in  the  circuit,  and  a  visible  spark,  or  even  an 


6. — MAGNETIC   FIELD  OF   SOLENOID. 


arc,  is  generally  formed  at  the  break.  This  phenomenon  is  known  as 
self  induction.  Owing  to  the  self  induction  of  a  circuit,  the  current  in  it, 
therefore,  tends  to  continue  when  the  circuit  is  broken;  but  the  self 
induction  also  opposes  the  rise  of  a  current  when  the  circuit  is  first  made. 
Self  induction  therefore  opposes  any  variation  in  the  current  flowing  in 
a  circuit,  being  similar  to  the  property  of  inertia  of  matter,  which  opposes 
any  variation  in  the  motion  of  a  body. 

MUTUAL  INDUCTION   (Fie.  6). 

Now,  suppose  that  two  coils  are  mounted  side  by  side,  with  their  axes 
coinciding,  one  being  connected  to  a  source  of  current  and  the  other 
closed  upon  itself.  If  the  coils  are  very  large  in  diameter  and  relatively 
flat,  approximately  the  same  number  of  lines  passes  through  both.  If  now 
the  current  in  the  one  coil  is  stopped,  and  the  magnetic  field  in  conse- 
quence ceases,  both  coils  are  cut  by  the  same  magnetic  lines,  and  the 
same  inductive  effect  is  produced  in  both.  The  effect  in  the  coil  carry- 
ing the  current  is,  as  already  explained,  called  self  induction,  while  that 
produced  by  this  coil  on  the  other  coil  is  called  mutual  induction.  In  the 
latter  case  there  is  a  transference  of  electric  energy  from  one  coil  to  the 
other  without  there  being  any  conductive  connection  between  the  two. 

It  was  stated  above  that  the  electromotive  force  induced  in  a  conductor 
is  proportional  to  the  rate  at  which  lines  of  force  are  cut.  If  the  con- 
ductor is  formed  into  a  coil  of  many  turns  and  is  brought  into  a  mag- 
netic field  in  which  a  certain  number  of  lines  of  force  passes  through  it, 
every  line  is  cut  a  number  of  times  equal  to  the  number  of  turns  in  the 
coil.  In  order,  therefore,  to  produce  a  high  electromotive  force  by 
electro-magnetic  induction  we  require,  first,  a  strong  magnetic  field; 
second,  a  coil  of  many  turns;  third,  means  for  varying  the  number  of 
lines  of  force  interlinked  with  the  coil  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

In  such  an  arrangement  of  two  coils  in  inductive  relation  to  each 
other,  the  one  which  is  connected  to  the  source  of  current  is  called  the 
primary  coil,  and  the  other  one  the  secondary.  The  combination  is  called 
an  induction  coil,  or  a  transformer.  It  is  used  in  practice  for  varying 

the  electromotive  force  of  a  circuit. 
If  the  primary  coil  consists  of  a 
few  turns  of  heavy  wire,  and  the 
secondary  of  numerous  turns  of  fine 
wire,  the  electromotive  force  induced 
in  the  secondary  upon  making  or 
breaking  the  primary  circuit  is  much 
greater  than  the  electromotive  force 
of  the  source  of  current  supplying 
the  primary  coil.  Of  course,  not  all 
the  lines  of  force  produced  by  the 
current  in  the  primary  coil  pass 
through  the  secondary  coil,  and  in 
order  to  reduce  the  leakage  as  much 
as  possible  the  coils  must  be  placed 
close  together.  To  produce  the 

strongest  magnetic  effect  a  soft  iron  core  must  be  placed  inside  the 
two  coils. 


FIG.  7.— RULE  FOR  DIRECTION  OF 
INDUCED  CURRENTS. 


From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  an  electric  current  can  be 
produced  by  mechanically  moving  a  conductor  in  a  magnetic  field  in  such 
a  direction  as  to  cut  the  lines  of  force.  When  a  current  is  thus  pro- 
duced there  is  a  certain  resistance  to  the  motion  of  the  conductor. 
The  direction  of  an  electromotive  force  thus  induced  may  be  found  from 
the  following  rule: 

Extend  the  thumb,  index  finger  and  middle  finger  in  directions  at  right 
angles  to  each  other  (see  Fig.  7).  If  the-'index  finger  indicates  the  direc- 
tion of  the  lines  of  force  and  the  thumb  the  direction  of  motion,  then 
the  middle  finger  will  indicate  the  direction  of  the  induced  electromotive 
force. 


Elements  of  the  Jump   Spark   Ignition   System. 

THE    SPARK    COIL. 

There  are  essentially  two  methods  of  electric  ignition  for  hydrocarbon 
motors,  viz.,  jump  spark  ignition  and  touch  spark,  or  make  and  break 
ignition.  In  the  former  system  a  spark  is  caused  to  jump  the  gap  between 
the  ends  of  two  slightly  separated  fixed  electrodes  inside  the  cylinder, 
insulated  from  each  other,  while  in  the  latter  system  the  spark  is  formed 
between  relatively  movable  terminals  in  the  cylinder  wall,  which  are  first 
brought  in  contact  for  a  moment  to  close  the  circuit  and  allow  the  cur- 
rent to  flow,  and  then  rapidly  separated.  The  former  is  also  known  as 
the  high  tension  system  and  the  latter  as  the  low  tension. 

The  high  tension  system  of  ignition  in  its  simplest  form  consists  of 
the  following  apparatus:  A  source  of  current  (battery  or  mechanical 
generator),  an  induction  coil,  operated  by  the  source  of  current,  for 
producing  extremely  high  pressure  electric  impulses  on  the  principle  of 
electro-magnetic  induction ;  an  interrupter,  or  timer,  operated  by  the 
motor,  for  actuating  the  coil  at  the  proper  period  in  the  cycle  of  opera- 
tion of  the  motor;  a  spark  plug,  which  is  secured  into  the  combustion 
chamber  wall  of  the  engine,  and  the  electrodes  of  which  are  connected 
to  the  secondary  winding  of  the  coil. 

The  simplest  form  of  spark  coil  or  induction  coil,  known  as  a  plain 
coil,  is  built  about  as  follows :  A  core  is  made  of  soft  annealed  iron  wires 
(about  No.  20  B.  &  S.  gauge)  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  and  about  6  inches  long.  Over  this  core  is  slipped  a  spool 
of  insulating  material  (hard  rubber  or  composition),  on  which  is  wound 
first  the  primary  winding  of  the  coil,  which  consists  of  several  layers  of 
about  No.  18  B.  &  S.  gauge  silk  insulated  magnet  wire.  After  the 
primary  wire  has  been  all  wound  on  and  the  ends  have  been  properly 
brought  out  through  the  heads  of  the  spool  to  be  connected  to  binding 
posts  thereon,  a  layer  of  insulating  material  is  applied  over  the  primary 
wire,  and  the  secondary  winding  is  then  wound  on.  This  consists  of 
about  No.  36  B.  &  S.  gauge  single  silk  covered  magnet  wire,  the  amount 
used  varying  considerably  with  the  different  manufacturers.  When  all 
the  wire  has  been  wound  on  the  ends  are  brought  out  to  binding  posts, 
the  coil  is  soaked  in  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol  and  baked,  or  in  melted 
paraffin  or  a  paraffin  compound,  and  allowed  to  cool.  It  is  then  placed 

13 


FIG.  8.— DIAGRAM  OF  INDUCTION  COIL. 


in  either  a  cylindrical  hard 
rubber  shell  or  in  a  prismatic 
hardwood  box,  according  to 
the  use  to  which  it  is  to  be 
put.  The  proportions  of  these 
coils  vary  greatly.  For  motor- 
cycle use  they  are  made  long 
and  of  small  diameter  (iox2l/2 
inches,  for  instance),  while  for 
some  other  purposes  short  and 
thick  coils  are  found  more 
A  diagrammatic  representation 


convenient    (4x6   inches,    for   instance), 
of  an  induction  coil  is  given  in  Fig.  8. 

According  to  S.  P.  Thompson  it  requires  about  10,000  volts  to  jump 
a  gap  of  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  the  atmosphere.  The  electrical 
resistance  of  an  explosive  charge  under  compression  is  several  times  as 
great  as  -that  of  the  atmosphere,  and  hence,  though  the  spark  plug  ter- 
minals are  usually  only  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch  apart,  the  coils  are 
wound  to  give  a  spark  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long 
in  the  atmosphere.  This,  according  to  Thompson's  rule,  requires  from 
80,000  to  120,000  volts  maximum  pressure. 

With  a  coil  constructed  as  described  above,  a  jump  spark  may  be 
produced  for  demonstrating  purposes  as  follows  (Fig.  9)  :  Connect  the 
ends  or  leads  of  the  second- 
ary winding  to  fixed  insula- 
tors and  bend  the  ends  so 
they  are  from  one-sixteenth 
to  one-eighth  inch  apart. 
Connect  one  end  of  the  pri- 
mary winding  to  an  electric 
battery,  and  with  the  other 
lead  of  the  primary  winding 
brush  against  the  other  ter- 
minal of  the  battery,  as  in- 
dicated. When  the  contact 
is  broken  there  will  be  a 
spark  both  at  the  point  of 
rupture  in  the  primary  cir- 
cuit and  at  the  gap.  An 
electric  impulse  is  also  in- 
duced in  the  secondary  circuit  when  the  primary  circuit  is  closed  and 
the  current  flowing  in  it  gradually  rises  to  its  maximum  value,  but  this 
impulse  is  too  feeble  to  cause  a  spark  to  jump  across,  the  gap.  Only  the 
impulse  induced  in  the  secondary  during  the  dying  out  of  the  current 
in  the  primary  is  utilized.  The  electromotive  force  induced  in  the 
secondary  winding  varies  substantially  as  shown  in  the  curve,  Fig.  10. 

While  the  current  in  the  primary  winding  rises  to  a  maximum  an  im- 
pulse is  induced  in  the  secondary  winding  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that 
flowing  in  the  primary  circuit,  and  while  the  current  in  the  primary  de- 
creases an  impulse  is  induced  in  the  secondary  in  the  same  direction  as  the 


FIG.  9. — ILLUSTRATING  EXPERIMENTS  WITH 
INDUCED  CURRENTS. 


THE  HORSELESS  AGE 


FIG.    10.  —  CURVES  OF  IMPULSES  AT  MAKE 
AND  BREAK  OF  CIRCUIT. 


THE  HORSELESS  ACE 


FIG.  n. — CURVE  OF  OSCILLATING  DISCHARGE. 


primary  current.  Theory  and  experiment  show  that  the  reverse  impulse 
in  the  secondary  during  the  break  in  the  primary  has  about  twice  the 
maximum  value  of  the  direct  impulse  during  the  "make,"  but  lasts  only 
about  half  as  long.  The  quantity  of  electricity — in  other  words,  the 
product  of  the  average  current  by  the  time — is  the  same  for  both  im- 
pulses. Under  certain  conditions  of  self  inductance  and  capacity  in  the 
secondary  circuit  the  dis- 
charge is  of  an  oscillatory 
nature;  that  is,  a  charge 
passes  through  the  circuit 
first  in  one  direction,  then 
in  the  other,  gradually  di- 
minishing in  value,  as  indi- 
cated in  Fig.  ii.  It  does 
not  appear  to  be  known 
whether  the  conditions  in 
the  average  high  tension 
spark  circuit  are  such  as  to 
cause  such  an  oscillatory 
discharge. 

A  coil  used  as  illustrated 
by  the  above  described  ex- 
periment will  only  give 
feeble  sparks  for  its  size, 
for  the  following  reasons : 
The  inductive  effect  of  the  primary  winding  on  the  secondary  depends 
upon  the  rate  at  which  the  current  in  the  primary  winding  decreases  or 
dies  out.  If  a  strong  inductive  effect  is  to  be  produced  in  the  secondary 
the  current  in  the  primary  must  stop  suddenly.  But  this  is  prevented 
by  the  self  induction  of  the  primary  coil,  which  has  a  tendency  to  pre- 
vent the  current  from  decreasing.  The  direct  result  of  this  is  that  as 
the  primary  circuit  is  broken  a  spark  appears  at  the  break,  which  simply 
means  that  the  current  continues  to  flow  after  the  break  has  occurred, 
dying  down  comparatively  slowly,  and  the  inductive  effect  on  the  secondary 
winding  is  small.  The  spark  at  the  break  in  the  primary  circuit  is  even 
larger  than  that  in  the  secondary  circuit,  and  as  this  primary  spark  serves 
no  useful  purposes,  but,  on  the  contrary,  quickly  eats  or  burns  away  the 
contact  points,  such  an  arrangement  is  obviously  defective.  The  whole 
trouble  is  evidently  due  to  the  self  inductance  of  the  primary  circuit,  and 

the  effect  of    this  self  inductance 
must    therefore    be    overcome    in 
some    manner.      This    is    accom- 
plished by  means  of  a  condenser. 
An  electric  condenser  (Fig.  12) 
is  a  device  which  will  absorb  or 
hold   an   electric  charge   in   about 
the  same  manner  as  a  jug  holds  a 
liquid.     Every  conductor  of  elec- 
tricity  forms  a  condenser,  and   its  capacity   for  holding  charge   depends 
upon    its   surface.     A   condenser   is   therefore   made   of   electrically    con- 


THE  HORSELESS  AGE 
FIG.  12. — DIAGRAM  OF  CONDENSER. 


FIG.  13. — CONSTRUCTION  OF  CONDENSER. 


ductive  material  formed  into  such  shape  as  to  present  the  greatest 
possible  surface  for  the  least  amount  of  material.  The  usual  method 
of  constructing  an  electric  condenser  is  as  follows  (Fig.  13)  :  The 
conducting  material  used  is  tinfoil,  of  which  a  large  number  of 
sheets  are  prepared,  all  cut  to  the  same  size.  These  are  placed  one  on 
top  of  the  other,  with  a  thin  layer  of  insulating  material,  usually  two 
sheets  of  paraffined  paper,  between.  Numbering  the  successive  sheets  of 
tinfoil  serially,  all  sheets  of  even  number  are  connected  together,  and 
all  sheets  of  odd  number  are  connected  together,  these  connections  form- 
ing the  terminals  of  the  condenser.  The  condenser  is  then  connected 
across  the  break  in  the  primary  circuit.  The  action  of  the  condenser  is 
as  follows:  When  the  circuit  is  broken  and  the  current  begins  to  die 
down,  an  "extra  current"  is 
produced  by  the  self  induc- 
tion in  the  primary  circuit, 
but  this  extra  current,  in- 
stead of  forcing  its  way 
across  the  gap,  passes  into 
the  condenser,  charging  it, 
thus  avoiding  the  spark  at 
the  break. 

Of  course,  the  condenser  ^^    ^Jft^^^^^^  THE  HORSELESS  AGE 

must  be  of  such  capacity  as 
to  just  neutralize  the  in- 
ductance of  the  primary 
circuit.  Capacity  is,  in  fact, 

an  "antidote"  for  self  inductance,  and  neutralizes  all  its  effects.  If  the 
capacity  just  balances  the  self  inductance,  the  current  in  the  primary  will 
die  down  almost  instantly,  and  consequently  a  high  pressure  will  be 
induced  in  the  secondary  winding.  The  self  inductance  that  must  be 
.  neutralized  by  the  capacity  of 

the  condenser  is  not  only  that 
of  the  primary  winding  of  the 
coil  but  that  of  the  whole  pri- 
mary circuit. 

In  the  practical  use  of  a 
coil  we  require  a  device  which 
performs  the  function  corre- 
sponding to  the  brushing  of 
the  primary  lead  against  the 
battery  terminal  by  hand  in  the 
above  described  experiment ; 
that  is,  making  and  then  rap- 
idly breaking  the  primary  cir- 
cuit. Such  a  result  may  be 
produced  by  the  use  of  a  timer 
as  shown  in  Fig.  14,  where  F 
is  the  end  of  a  shaft  run  by 
the  engine  at  one-half  the  speed  thereof,  E  is  a  cam  secured  to  this  shaft, 
formed  with  a  raised  face;  B  is  the  support  for  the  pivoted  make  and 


FIG.  14.— MAGNETO  TYPE  TIMER. 


16 


break  arm  C,  and  is  electrically  connected  to  one  side  of  the  electric  cir- 
cuit; H  is  a  platinum-indium  contact  point  adjustably  attached  to  the 
free  end  of  the  pivoted  arm  C,  and  I  is  another  platinum-indium  contact 
fastened  to  the  end  of  an  adjusting  screw  fixed  in  the  insulated  support  J, 
which  carries  the  other  circuit  connection ;  K  is  a  spring  which  tends 
to  hold  H  and  I  in  contact.  With  the  cam  in  the  position  shown  in  the 
figure,  the  electric  circuit  is  closed,  the  current  passing  by  a  wire  attached 
to  J,  through  the  contacts  I  and  H,  into  the  pivoted  bar  C,  and  thence 
through  a  wire  to  the  external  circuit.  When,  however,  the  shaft  turns 
so  that  the  raised  portion  of  cam  E  strikes  the  block  carried  by  the  face 
of  pivoted  arm  C,  the  latter  is  moved  upon  its  pivot  and  the  contacts  H 
and  I  separate  abruptly,  breaking  the  circuit  through  the  battery  and 
primary  coil  and  producing  a  spark  at  the  plug  in  the  secondary  circuit. 

It  is  here  considered  that  the  engine  is  of  the  four  cycle  type  and 
passes  through  one  cycle  during  two  revolutions  of  the  crank  shaft  or 
one  revolution  of  the  cam  shaft  F.  Hence  there  will  be  one  spark  per 
cycle,  or  every  two  revolutions  of  the  engine,  as  is  required  for  ignition. 
The  cam  E  is  secured  to  the  shaft  in  such  a  manner  that  the  spark  occurs 
just  before  the  beginning  of  the  power  stroke,  after  the  charge  has  been 
admitted  to  the  cylinder  and  compressed  therein.  Provisions  are,  how- 
ever, made  for  allowing  the  time  of  ignition  to  be  varied  with  relation 
to  the  engine  cycle.  The  shell  L  is  mounted  concentric  with  the  cam  E, 
and  is  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  rocked  one  way  or  the  other  by  means 
of  a  link  and  lever  attachment  operated  by  the  spark  timing  lever.  It  is 
obvious  that  by  moving  the  shell  and  its  connected  parts  in  the  direction 
in  which  the  cam  rotates  the  time  of  ignition  is  retarded,  and  by  moving 
it  in  the  opposite  direction  the  time  of  ignition  is  advanced.  The  mechan- 
ism here  shown  is  protected  by  an  aluminum  cover,  held  to  the  base  plate 
by  thumb  nuts. 

The  timer  here  shown  serves  well  as  an  illustration,  but  is  not  the  type 
commonly  used  in  battery  ignition,  as  it  holds  the  electric  circuit  closed 
so  long  as  to  be  very  wasteful  of  batteries.    It  is,  how- 
ever, the  form  used  in  connection  with  the  high  ten- 
sion magneto,  and  will  be  referred  to  again  under  that 
head. 

THE   SPARK   PLUG. 

Another  element  in  the  make-up  of  a  simple  jump 
spark  system  is  the  spark  plug.  A  typical  form  of 
plug  is  shown  herewith  (Fig.  15).  It  consists  of  a 
central  rod  A,  which  is  clamped  into  a  porcelain  insu- 
lator B,  which,  in  turn  is  clamped  into  a  metal  housing 
in  two  parts,  C  D.  Asbestos  gaskets^  or  washers  are 
interposed  between  the  metal  and  p'orcelain  to  pre- 
vent cracking  of  the  latter,  due  to  unequal  heat  expan- 
sion of  the  two  materials,  and  also  to  give  a  gas- 
tight  joint.  The  outer  shell  C  is  provided  with  a  screw 
thread,  and  screws  into  the  wall  of  the  combustion 
chamber.  The  rod  A  and  the  shell  C  carry  at  their  FIG.  15. — TYPI- 
inner  ends  short  lengths  of  platinum  or  nickel  alloy  CAL  SPARK 
wire,  which  are  bent  toward  each  other  and  come  to  PLUG. 


within  a  distance  of  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch  of  each  other.  The 
central  terminal  A  is  provided  at  its  outer  end  with  a  binding  screw  E. 
The  simple  jump  spark  system  here  referred  to  is  completed  by  an 
electric  switch,  which  admits  of  opening  and  closing  the  circuit  at  will. 
The  various  parts  comprising  the  ignition  outfit  are  now  connected  together 
electrically,  as  shown  in  the  diagram  (Fig.  16).  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
current  from  the  battery  flows  through  the  primary  of  the  coil,  from  which 
it  is  led  by  a  wire  to  the  timer,  and  from  the  timer  it  returns  through 
the  switch  to  the  battery.  One  terminal  of  the  secondary  winding  of  the 
coil  is  connected  to  the  spark  plug,  and  the  other  is  grounded,  and  as  the 
outer  shell  of  the  spark  plug  is  in  contact  with  the  mass  of  the  engine, 
and  therefore  grounded,  the  secondary  circuit  is  complete  except  for  the 
one  thirty-second  inch  gap  at  the  spark  plug  terminals. 


FIG.  16. — DIAGRAM  OF  SINGLE  CYLINDER  JUMP  SPARK  CONNECTIONS. 

The  action  of  the  outfit  may  now  be  easily  understood.  Every  time 
the  timer  suddenly  breaks  the  circuit  an  electrical  impulse  is  sent  through 
the  primary  of  the  coil,  and  a  high  tension  electric  impulse  is  thereby 
induced  in  the  secondary  winding  of  the  coil,  which  impulse  causes  a 
spark  to  jump  at  the  spark  plug  terminals.  Instead  of  producing  the 
spark  by  the  abrupt  breaking  of  the  circuit  by  the  mechanical  action  of 
the  timer  in  the  manner  similar  to  that  just  described,  spark  coils  intended 
for  ordinary  battery  ignition  are  now  usually  fitted  with  magnetic  vibrators. 
This  device  acts  to  break  and  make  the  primary  circuit  with  great  rapidity 
so  long  as  the  timer  keeps  the  circuit  closed  and  produces  a  spark  at  each 
break. 

Fig.  17  illustrates  a  simple  form  of  this  device  fitted  to  an  ordinary 
boxed  coil.  One  end  of  the  primary  winding  is  connected  to  the  binding 
post  P2  on  the  end  of  the  case,  and  the  other  leads  to  a  metal  block  B 
secured  to  the  end  of  the  case.  To  this  metal  block  is  screwed  a  flat 
steel  spring  C,  having  riveted  to  its  outer  end  a  small  cylindrical  block 
of  soft  iron  D,  called  the  armature. 

This  armature  D  is  located  exactly  opposite  the  end  of  the  soft  iron 
wire  core  A,  and  is  normally  held  at  a  little  distance  from  the  core  by  the 

18 


steel  spring  C.  The  steel  spring  C  is  spanned  by  a  brass  yoke  E  secured 
to  the  end  of  the  coil  box  by  means  of  screws.  This  yoke  is  drilled  and 
tapped  at  its  centre  to  receive  the  contact  screw  F,  which  can  be  adjusted 
in  it  and  locked  in  adjustment  by  the  check  nut  Fi.  The  two  platinum 
tipped  contact  points  are  normally  pressed  together  by  the  spring  C.  The 
yoke  E  is  connected  to  the  primary  binding  post  Pi  by  a  wire. 

Now  suppose  a  battery  to  be  connected  to  the  two  posts  Pi- and  P2. 
The  positive  or  carbon  terminal  of  the  battery  may  be  considered  to  be 
connected  to  Pi,  in  which  case  the  current  will  enter  at  this  terminal. 
As  indicated  by  arrows,  it  will  flow  through  the  wire  connection  to  the 
yoke  E,  through  the  contact  screw  F,  across  the  contact  at  the  points  to 
the  contact  spring  C,  to  the  metal  block  B,  through  the  primary  winding 
of  the  coil  to  the  binding  post  P2,  and  from  there  back  to  the  battery. 
As  soon  as  the  current  begins  to  flow  through  the  primary  winding  of 
the  coil  it  magnetizes  the  soft  iron  wire  core  A,  and  the  latter  attracts 
the  armature  D  and  the  outer  end  of  the  spring  C,  thereby  drawing  the 
contact  point  on  the  spring  away  from  the  point  of  the  contact  screw  F, 
and  interrupting  the  primary  circuit.  The  flow  of  current  through  the 


FIG,  17.— MAGNETIC  VIBRATOR. 

primary  winding  is  thereby  stopped,  and  an  electric  impulse  induced  in 
the  secondary  winding,  and  if  the  terminals  of  the  latter  are  sufficiently 
close  together  a  spark  will  jump  across  the  gap. 

As  soon  as  the  current  in  the  primary  winding  ceases  the  core  A 
loses  its  magnetism,  and  the  armature  D  and  spring  C  are  returned  to 
their  original  positions  by  the  spring  force  of  C,  and  contact  is  estab- 
lished again  between  the  platinum  point  on  the  spring  C  and  the  point 
of  the  contact  screw  F.  The  current  then  flows  again  through  the  primary 
winding,  the  armature  D  is  again  attracted,  and  the  circuit  broken  at  the 
contact  points,  which  gives  another  spark  in  the  secondary.  This  process, 
or  cycle,  requires  only  an  extremely  short  time,  less  than  the  one-hundredth 
part  of  a  second,  and  is  repeated  indefinitely  as  long  as  the  source  of 
current  is  connected  to  the  primary  binding  posts  Pi  and  P2.  The  rapidity 
of  the  break  and  of  the  vibration  of  the  spring  C  can  be  varied  by 
adjusting  the  contact  screw  F. 

19 


THE  HORSELESS  AGE 

FIG.  18.— DIAGRAM  OF  COIL  WITH  VIBRATOR 
AND  CONDENSER. 


By  varying  the  adjustment  of  the  contact  screw,  not  only  is  the  num- 
ber of  sparks  in  a  given  time  varied,  but  also  the  strength  of  the  indi- 
vidual sparks.  Suppose,  for 
instance,  that  the  contact 
screw  F  is  screwed  so  far 
out  that  the  spring  C  merely 
bears  against  the  point  of 
the  contact  screw  when  at 
rest.  Only  the  slightest 
force  is  then  required  to 
draw  it  away  from  the 
point  of  the  screw,  and  the 
circuit  is  broken  as  soon  as 
the  current  begins  to  flow 
in  the  primary  and  long  be- 
fore it  reaches  its  maximum 
value.  But  if  the  current 

in  the  primary  winding  only  attains  to  a  small  value,  the  inductive  effect 
in  the  secondary  can  only  be  small,  and  only  a  small  spark  is  produced. 
Owing  to  the  self  induction  of  the  primary  winding  of  the  coil  a  con- 
denser must  be  connected  across  the  vibrator,  as  shown  in  Fig.  18,  to 
prevent  abnormal  sparking  at  the  vibrator  contact  points.  This  condenser 
is  sometimes  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  coil  box,  as  here  shown,  some- 
times wrapped  around  the  coil,  as  it  were,  and  sometimes  put  up  in  a 
special  box,  the  idea  in  the  latter  case  being  to  facilitate  repairs  to  either 
the  coil  or  the  condenser. 

ADJUSTMENT  OF   COIL  VIBRATORS. 

Unless  the  vibrator  of  a  coil  is  adjusted  properly  unsatisfactory  opera- 
tion of  the  engine  is  likely  to  result.  If  it  is  so  adjusted  that  it  allows 
an  unnecessarily  large  current  to  pass,  the  batteries  which  operate  it  will 
be  exhausted  prematurely  and  the  platinum-iridium  points  will  rapidly 
be  worn  away,  becoming  so  rough  as  to  fail  to  make  a  good  contact, 
when  the  spark  will  become  irregular  and  the  engine  begin  to  miss 
explosions.  Most  coil  manufacturers  furnish  instructions  as  to  the  cur- 
rent strength  which  their  coils  should  pass  in  order  to  secure  reliable 
sparks  with  low  compression  and  high  compression  engines,  respectively, 
and  if  a  certain  fraction  of  an  ampere  is  recommended  for  use  with  a 
certain  coil,  the  best  procedure  is  to  connect  in  circuit  with  the  coil  a  low 
reading  ammeter  and  adjust  the  current  to  the  required  value.  Most 
modern  vibrators  are  n'ow  fitted  with  a  single  screw  adjustment,  the 
turning  of  which  so  as  to  bring  greater  pressure  between  the  vibrator 
contacts  increases  the  current  taken,  and  vice  versa;  The  correct  adjust- 
ment is  to  be  found  by  varying  the  set  of  this  screw. 

In  the  absence  of  an  ammeter  a  fair  adjustment  may  be  made  by 
starting  the  engine  and  slowly  reducing  the  pressure  between  the  contacts 
of  the  vibrator  by  means  of  the  screw  until  ignition  begins  to  become 
irregular,  and  then  turning  the  adjusting  screw  slightly  in  the  opposite 
direction  until  reliable  firing  has  recommenced.  As  the  vibrator  points 
wear  away  slightly  in  ordinary  use,  it  occasionally  becomes  necessary  to 
adjust  them  a  very  little  closer  upon  any  sign  of  missing  on  the  part 


20 


of  the  engine  which  is  attributable  to  the  ignition.  After  extended  use 
the  contact  points  are  likely  to  become  burned  into  a  rough  form  and 
require  to  be  smoothed.  For  this  purpose  a  piece  of  emery  cloth  or  a 
small  abrasive  stone  specially  prepared  for  this  service  is  preferable. 
The  direction  of  the  current  through  the  vibrator  should  always  be  from 
the  screw  or  stationary  contact  to  the  vibrating  contact,  rather  than  in 
the  opposite  direction,  so  that  the  point  of  the  screw,  which  is  the  more 
readily  replaceable  part,  may  be  the  portion  to  suffer  the  more  wear. 


The  Spark   Plug. 

(ALBERT  L.  CLOUGH.) 

The  very  widespread  adoption  of  the  jump  spark  method  to  the  igni- 
tion of  automobile  motors  has  raised  the  spark  plug  to  a  position  of 
great  importance  and  consideration  in  the  automobile  world  and  has  led 
to  the  expenditure  of  a  vast  amount  of  time  and  thought  upon  the  per- 
fection of  this  small  but  supremely  important  adjunct  of  motor  car 
operation. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

In  its  essential  features,  the  jump  spark  plug  is  a  device  of  extreme 
simplicity,,  consisting  of  but  three  necessary  parts,  namely:  A  metal 
shell  capable  of  insertion  into  the  combustion  chamber  of  the  motor,  a 
hollow  bushing  of  insulating  material  adapted  to  fit  the  metal  shell  in- 
ternally, and  a  metal  spindle  adapted  to  fit  the  hole  in  the  insulating 
bushing  and  provided  with  a  discharge  terminal  upon  its  inside  end  and 
means  for  clamping  the  lead  wire  upon  its  other  extremity.  These  three 
portions,  together  with  accessory  parts  designed  to  fasten  the  construc- 
tion together  and  to  render  it  gas  tight,  form  all  the  constituent  parts 
of  any  jump  spark  plug,  but  the  variations  in  material  employed,  in  the 
form  and  arrangement  of  the  parts  and  in  the  method  of  manufacture 
afford  an  almost  endless  variety  and  furnish  an  interesting  study  to  one 
who  cares  for  automobile  details. 

CONSTRUCTION   OF  METAL   PARTS. 

The  construction  of  the  outer  shell  and  of  the  inner  spindle  is  not 
a  matter  of  particular  interest  or  moment,  the  shell  being  manufactured 
of  iron  along  practically  the  same  lines  as  ordinary  pipe  fittings  are  pro- 
duced, while  the  spindle  or  electrically  alive  portion  is  usually  of  brass 
or  steel  rod  bearing  the  live  discharge  terminal  on  one  end  and  a  thread 
for  the  connecting  screw  on  the  other.  It  is,  however,  upon  the  material 
and  form  of  the  insulating  bushing  that  the  ingenuity  of  the  spark  plug 
designer  is  mostly  lavished. 

Upon  the  integrity  as  a  non-conductor  of  the  insulating  bushing  abso- 
lutely depends  the  operation  of  the  plug,  and  a  minute  crack  in  the 
material  of  the  bushing  is  sufficient  to  allow  an  escape  of  the  current 
through  it,  instead  of  between  the  sparking  points,  and  to  cause  a  cessation 
of  the  ignition. 

CAUSES   OF   INSULATION    FAILURE. 

Failure  of  the  insulation  usually  takes  place  from  one  of  the  three 
following  causes:  The  insulation  becomes  covered  with  a  conducting 


coating  which  allows  the  current  to  escape  quietly  over  the  surface  of 
the  bushing  from  the  spindle  to  the  shell.  The  bushing  may  break, 
allowing  the  current  to  discharge  through  the  crack,  or  the  insulation 
may  become  impregnated  with  conducting  matter,  rendering  it  of  doubt- 
ful quality  as  a  dielectric  and  allowing  of  an  escape  of  current  through 
the  material  of  the  bushing. 

A  great  deal  of  effort  has  been  expended  in  attempts  to  minimize 
the  liability  of  one  of  these  accidents  happening.  Breakage  of  the  bush- 
ing seems  to  occur  either  from  some  mechanical  shock  or  from  internal 
stresses  occasioned  by  a  difference  of  temperature  existing  between  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  insulating  tube — the  inner  end,  in  the  combustion 
chamber,  being  very  hot  and  the  outer  end,  in  the  open  air,  being  com- 
paratively cool.  The  more  brittle  the  insulating  material  may  be,  the 
more  danger  there  is  of  the  insulation  becoming  cracked.  Porcelai" 
is  particularly  prone  to  failure  by  cracking,  although  the  best  quality, 
which  is  especially  employed  for  spark  plug  bushings,  is  exceedingly 
fine  grained,  hard  and  mechanically  resistant.  In  order  to  minimize  the 
danger  of  cracking  from  unequal  heating,  the  bushing  is  sometimes  made 
sectional,  so  that  the  portions  inside  and  outside  of  the  cylinders  may 
expand  independently.  In  order  that  plugs  which  make  use  of  porcelain 
insulation  may  be  capable  of  being  repaired  after  the  porcelain  is  cracked, 
they  are  generally  arranged  so  as  to  be  readily  refitted  with  new  bushings. 
Spark  plug  bushings  built  up  of  mica  are  from  the  nature  of  the  material 
quite  free  from  the  liability  of  becoming  cracked  from  blows  or  from 
unequal  expansion  by  heat. 

SOOTING  OF   INSULATOR   SURFACE. 

Prevention  of  the  failure  of  spark  plugs  due  to  a  conducting  surface 
being  formed  over  the  insulating  material  has  proved  a  problem  of  great 
importance  and  difficulty.  If  an  explosive  mixture  is  employed  in  the 
cylinders  which  contains  an  excess  of  gasoline  vapor,  there  must  neces- 
sarily be  some  gasoline  each  stroke  which  is  not  perfectly  consumed. 
The  result  of  the  imperfect  combustion  of  a  hydrocarbon  is  the  freeing 
of  carbon  in  the  form  of  lampblack,  and  some  of  this  rrtinutely  divided 
and  conducting  material  deposits  upon  the  insulating  surfaces  and  allows 
of  the  passage  of  a  "sneak"  current,  which  prevents  the  disruptive  dis- 
charge at  the  plug  terminals.  Then,  too,  if  an  excess  of  lubricating  oil 
is  employed  in  the  cylinder,  some  of  it  is  sure  to  splash  upon  the  end  of 
the  spark  plug,  and  as  the  temperature  of  the  plug  is  likely  to  be  higher 
than  the  decomposing  point  of  the  lubricant,  a  carbon  deposit  will  result. 

The  extreme  heat  to  which  the  spark  plug  end  is  exposed  is  likely  to 
ultimately  deteriorate  the  end  surface  of  the  insulation.  Porcelain  loses 
its  glaze  after  considerable  service  and  presents  a  rough  surface,  generally 
of  a  slightly  pinkish  or  yellowish  hue.  This  unglazed  surface  seems  to 
catch  the  carbon  deposit  more  readily  and  is  not  easily  cleaned. 
PREVENTION  OF  SOOTING. 

Many  expedients  are  in  vogue  intended  to  prevent  this  carbon  deposit 
or  to  minimize  its  effect,  and  it  seems  rather  strange  that  so  much  effort 
is  directed  toward  this  end  when  it  is  perfectly  practicable  to  remove  the 
cause  of  sooting,  and  far  more  effective  than  treating  the  symptom  after 
it  has  manifested  itself.  A  perfect  mixture  will  not  deposit  a  particle 


of  soot  upon  any  kind  of  spark  plug,  and  a  plug  may  be  run  almost 
indefinitely  without  fouling  in  a  cylinder  having  a  proper  quality  of  gas 
and  judicious  lubrication.  If  one-half  the  attention  which  is  paid  to 
the  manufacture  and  use  of  non-sooting  plugs  were  expended  upon  car- 
buretor adjustments  and  oil  feeds,  a  better  condition  would  probably 
be  the  result.  Of  course,  if  a  bad  mixture  has  to  be  used,  sootprool 
plugs  are  valuable  in  so  far  as  they  deserve  this  designation,  but  "remov- 
ing the  cause"  is  the  only  truly  logical  course  under  such  circumstances. 

THEORY  OF  ANTI-SOOTING  PLUGS. 

The  methods  by  which  the  insulation  of  plugs  is  claimed  to  be  pre- 
vented from   fouling  are  based  upon  theories,  some  of  which  are  very 
difficult  of  demonstration  and  are  regarded  with  more  or  less  skepticism 
by  those  who  have  given  thought  to  the  matter.    The  most  common  con- 
struction designed  to  effect  this  end  is  the  use  of  a  cavity  between  the 
outer  shell  and  the  inner  spindle;  that  is,  the  bushing  is  arranged  so  as 
not  nearly  to   fill   this   space,   which   may   extend   quite   deeply   into   the 
sparking   end   of   the   plug.     The   live   terminal   is   ar- 
ranged at  the  mouth  of  this  cavity  and  may  be  a  point 
brought  into  juxtaposition  with  the  outside  shell,  or  it 
may  be  a  circular  plate,  nearly  filling  the  mouth  of  this 
chamber    (Fig.    19).     The    insulating   bushing    is    gen- 
erally not  brought  out  flush  with  the  sparking  terminals, 
and  is  thus  protected  to  a  certain  extent  from  splashing 
oil.     It  is  claimed  that  during  the  compression  stroke  a 
small   portion   of   the   working   charge   is    forced   into 
the  cavity  above   described,  and  that  when   the   spark 
is  produced  this  part  of  the  mixture  is  first  ignited  and 
expands,  rushing  out  of  the  enclosed  space  so  violently 
as   to   preclude    the   possibility   of   any   carbon    deposit 
taking    place.      Another    theory    of    the    protected    ter- 
minal   or    explosion    chamber    plug    is    that    the    gases 
which  are  in  the  base  of  the  cavity  of  the  plug  very 
seldom  change,  are  practically  inert  and  non-explosive, 
while  the  gas  at  the  tip  of  the  plug  is  fresh  and  easily 
ignited,  and,  as  the  dead  gas  which  envelops  the  end 
of  the  insulating  bushing,  at  the  bottom  of  the  cavity, 
does  not  burn,  it  can  deposit  no  carbon,  and  thus  the 
end  of  the  bushing  remains  clean. 

Until  we  know  more  about  the  behavior  of  the  gases  inside  an  internal 
combustion  motor  we  may  not  be  in  a  position  to  state  with  assurance 
just  how  the  so  called  non-sooting  plug  performs  its  function,  but  it  is 
hardly  to  be  doubted  that  there  is  some  advantage  in  a  plug  having  a 
free  space  between  the  shell  and  the  spindle  with  the  insulation  some- 
what withdrawn  into  this  chamber. 

MINIMIZING   SURFACE   LEAKAGE. 

The  leakage  effect  due  to  sooting  is  reduced  in  many  forms  of  plugs, 
by  the  expedient  of  increasing  the  superficial  extent  of  the  insulating 
material  which  intervenes  between  the  shell  and  spindle.  This  forces 
the  leakage  current  to  travel  over  a  greater  length  of  carbon  film,  and 
materially  reduces  the  loss  of  energy  due  to  this  cause.  By  forming 


FIG.  19. — SPARK 
PLUG  WITH  AN- 
NULAR GAP. 


the  end  of  the  insulation  with  deep  corrugations  concentric  with  the 
spindle,  the  sneak  current  is  constrained  to  follow  a  circuitous  path  and 
is  much  reduced.  Many  plugs  now  manufactured  seem  to  embody  in 
the  form  of  the  bushing  end  the  idea  of  increasing  the  path  of  escape 
of  the  sneak  current.  Plugs  used  to  be  constructed  with  the  bushing 
end  perfectly  flat  and  interposing  the  minimum  superficial  distance  between 
the  shell  and  the  spindle,  but  one  sees  very  little  of  this  construction  at 
present. 

Spark  plug  bushings  sometimes  fail  in  their  insulating  properties 
through  becoming  impregnated  with  carbon  containing  material.  When 
this  occurs  the  bushing  becomes  unreliable  electrically  and  sometimes  the 
defect  is  very  difficult  to  locate.  Porcelain,  so  long  as  it  retains  its  glaze, 
is  practically  free  from  this  absorbent  quality,  the  deposit  upon  it  being 
entirely  superficial  and  easily  wiped  off.  Lava,  which  is  an  unglazed 
stone,  is  somewhat  absorbent,  although  not  seriously  so. 

MICA   INSULATION. 

The  mica  bushings  which  are  used  for  spark  plug  insulation  are  gen- 
erally built  up  of  washers  cut  out  of  sheet  mica  and  assembled  upon 
the  spindle,  which  generally  has  previously  been  given  a  wrapping  of 
sheet  mica.  As  it  is  not  considered  good  practice  to  use  a  cement  for 
the  purpose  of  binding  these  washers  together  to  form 
the  bushing,  the  pressure  produced  by  the  parts  of  the 
plug  themselves  is  relied  upon  to  consolidate  the  mica 
sheets  into  a  solid  body  (Fig.  20).  It  is  claimed,  how- 
ever, by  those  who  are  averse  to  the  use  of  this  material, 
that  oil  works  in  between  the  laminae  of  the  mica 
and  is  carbonized  by  the  heat;  also  that  the  carbon 
deposit  from  a  bad  mixture  is  not  entirely  superficial 
and  cannot  be  completely  wiped  off.  They  claim  that 
the  electrical  defects  which  develop  in  mica  bushings 
are  insidious  and  difficult  of  detection,  while  those 
arising  in  the  use  of  porcelain  are  obvious,  and  readily 
located. 

GASTIGHT  JOINTS. 

The  joint  between  the  shell  and  the  porcelain  bush- 
ing is  generally  made  gas  tight  by  means  of  a  copper- 
asbestos  washer,  which  is  forced  between  an  external 
shoulder  on  the  bushing  and  an  engaging  internal  one 
on  the  shell.  When  a  mica  bushing  is  used  for  insula- 
tion, it  may  be  formed  on  a  taper  and  the  shell  may  be 
formed  in  a  corresponding  conical  shape  internally  so 
that  the  two  parts  make  a  perfect  joint  when  forced 
together.  The  joint  between  the  spindle  and  the  bushing  is  sometimes 
sealed  with  cement. 

SPARK   TERMINALS. 

As  the  discharge  terminals  of  spark  plugs  are  subjected  to  a  high 
degree  of  heat,  they  are  generally  made  of  some  alloy  of  platinum,  although 
silver,  german  silver  and  some  special  cheap  alloys  are  made  use  of.  The 
material  used  is  probably  a  far  less  important  consideration  than  is  gen- 
erally believed.  About  the  only  requirements  are  that  the  points  shall 


FIG.    20.— MICA 

INSULATED 

SPARK  PLUG. 


24 


be  of  material  which  shall  not  oxidize  or  fuse  away  too  rapidly,  and  that 
they  shall  be  of  ample  strength  mechanically  so  as  not  to  be  disarranged 
as  regards  their  sparking  distance  when  the  plug  is  being  screwed  in 
place.  If  the  discharge  points  are  too  fine  or  sharp,  there  may  be  some 
diminution  of  the  disruptive  character  of  the  spark,  due  to  a  brush 
discharge. 

In  cleaning  a  plug,  the  insulating  surfaces  separating  the  spark  points 
should  be  gone  over  with  a  small  stiff  brush  moistened  in  gasoline. 

The  very  hot  discharges  produced  by  modern  magnetos  call  for  the 
employment  of  special  plugs  having  extra  heavy  sparking  terminals  which 
resist  the  melting  action  of  the  very  energetic  spark  or  arc  which  is  pro- 
duced. The  length  of  the  spark  gap  allowed  in  these  plugs  is  less  than 
that  used  in  battery  plugs,  being  not  far  from  one  sixty-fourth  inch  as 
a  rule. 

CONTACT   SPARK   PLUGS. 

In  the  contact  spark  system  the  entire  igniter,  comprising  both  the 
stationary  insulated  contact  and  the  moving,  grounded  portion,  is  usually 
adapted  to  fasten  to  and  cover,  by  means  of  a  ground  jointed,  bolted 
flange,  an  aperture  upon  the  side  of  the  combustion  chamber,  the  con- 
tacts of  the  igniter  projecting  inwardly  into  the  combustion  space. 


The  Timer. 

In  every  high  tension  ignition  system  there  is  required  a  device  for 
closing  and  opening  the  primary  circuit  at  the  proper  instant,  with  respect 
to  the  cycle  of  the  engine,  this  device  being  called  the  timer,  and  has 
previously  been  briefly  referred  to.  The  timer  determines  the  exact  point 
or  period  in  the  cycle  of  the  engine  at  which  ignition  occurs,  and  permits 
of  varying  this  point  at  will  while  the  engine  is  in  operation.  Every 
timer  consists  of  a  stationary  part  and  a  rotary  part,  the  latter  being 
driven  from  the  engine  at  one-half  the  engine  speed  in  the  case  of  a  four 
cycle,  and  at  full  engine  speed  in  the  case  of  a  two  cycle  motor.  One 
of  the  parts  is  provided  with  contact  blocks,  or  segments,  equal  in  number 
to  the  cylinders  of  the  motor,  while  the  other  part  is  provided  with  a 
single  contact  brush  or  arm  adapted  to  pass  over  and  make  contact  with 
all  the  contact  blocks  in  one  revolu- 
tion of  the  device. 

The  principle  of  the  timer  may 
probably  be  best  illustrated  by  the 
sketch  Fig.  21,  which  shows  a  brush 
contact  timer  for  a  single  cylinder 
engine.  In  this  figure  A  is  the  motor 
cam  shaft  (or  a  separate  shaft  which 
is  driven  at  the  same  speed),  to 
which  is  fixed  a  disc  B  of  insulating 
material,  having  a  metallic  segment 

C  embedded  in  its  circumference,  the  -^^  _^"THE  HORSELESS  AQE 

segment   being  electrically  connected 
to  the  shaft  A  by  the  screw  holding  FIG.   21.— SIMPLE  TIMER. 


it  in  place.  Against  the  surface  of  the  disc  B  bears  a  wire  gauze  or 
similar  brush  D  in  a  brushholder  E  clamped  in  the  circular  housing  F 
of  the  tinier,  this  housing  being  made  of  insulating  material.  To  the  brush- 
holder  E  may  be  fastened  an  electric  connecting  lead  as  shown.  It  will 
be  readily  understood  that  when  the  segment  C  passes  under  the  brush 
D  there  is  connection  from  the  brushholder  E  to  the  cam  shaft  A,  which 
shaft  is,  of  course,  in  metallic  connection  with  the  engine  structure  and 
therefore  grounded.  The  arrangement  of  the  parts  may,  of  course,  be 


© 


THE  HORSELES6  AGE 


FIG.  22.  —  PRIMARY  CIRCUIT  CONNECTIONS. 

reversed  ;  that  is,  the  segment  may  be  carried  by  the  annular  housing  and 
the  brush  in  a  holder  on  the  shaft. 

The  primary  circuit  of  the  ignition  outfit  is  now  made  up  as  follows 
(Fig.  22)  :  One  of  the  primary  binding  posts  P  of  the  coil  is  grounded 
(as  indicated  at  G)  and  the  other  is  connected  through  a  small  switch 
B  to  the  battery,  from  the  other  terminal  of  which  a  wire  is  led  to  the 
timer.  The  whole  primary  circuit  can  now  be  easily  traced.  So  long 
as  the  brushholder  is  stationary  contact  always  begins  and  ends  with  the 
cam  shaft  in  certain  definite  positions,  which  positions,  of  course,  corre- 

spond to  definite  periods  or 
points  in  the  cycle  of  the  en- 
gine.- In  order  to  allow  of 
varying  these  points  the  hous- 
ing of  the  timer  is  mounted 
so  it  can  be  rocked  around  its 
axis,  and  provided  with  a  lug 
from  which  a  linkage  connects 
to  a  small  lever  convenient  to 
the  operator,  usually  on  the 


FIG.  23.  —  DIAGRAM   SHOWING   PRINCIPLE 
OF  SPARK  TIMER. 


will  be  readily  seen  that  when 
the  timer  housing  is  moved  in 


the  same  direction  as  the  rotary  part  of  the  timer  rotates  the  spark  is 
retarded,  as  then  the  rotary  part  must  move  farther  before  contact  is 
established  and  broken,  while  if  the  housing  is  rocked  in  the  direction 
opposite  to  the  motion  of  the  rotating  part  the  spark  occurs  earlier  or 
is  advanced. 

TIME   OF   CONTACT. 

The  time  during  which  the  circuit  remains  closed  depends  upon  the 
angular  width  of  the  contact  segment,  upon  the  speed  of  revolution  of 
the  motor,  and  to  some  extent  upon  the  shape  of  the  contact  brush.  As 
the  consumption  of  electric  energy  is  directly  proportional  to  the  time 
of  contact,  the  segment  should  be  as  narrow  as  possible.  The  minimum 
width  is  determined  by  the  rate  of  vibration  of  the  coil  vibrator  and  by 
the  maximum  running  speed  of  the  motor.  In  timers  made  for  the  market 
the  segment  is  sometimes  made  as  wide  as  one-eighth  the  circumference. 

Among  important  detail  improvements  in  timers  is  the  provision  of 
ball  bearings  for  carrying  the  timer  housing  upon  the  driving  shaft, 
whereby  the  necessity  of  frequent  lubrication  is  obviated"  as  well  as  the 
tendency  of  the  timer  to  become  "wobbly,"  through  wear  of  its  bearings, 
which  is  the  most  frequent  cause  of  irregular  operation. 

Another  important  improvement  consists  in  the  provision  of  sliding 
connections  with  the  contact  terminals,  thus  obviating  the  bending  of  the 
wire  connection  every  time  the 
timer  is  advanced  or  retarded, 
which  is  a  frequent  cause  of 
breaking  of  these  connections. 
As  shown  in  Fig.  24,  the  ar- 
rangement consists  in  mount- 
ing metallic  contact  sectors  on 
a  board  back  of  the  timer 
(the  dashboard,  for  instance) 
of  such  angular  extent  as  to 
cover  the  terminal  in  any  point 
of  its  range  of  advancing  and 
retarding  motion.  The  contact 
terminals  are  fitted  with  spring 
pressed  ball  or  cylinder  con- 
tacts, which  bear  against  the 
inner  surface  of  the  segments. 
The  timer  may,  of  course,  be  FlG  24._TiMER  WITHOUT  MOVING  WIRES. 
located  in  any  position  •  to 

which  it  is  convenient  to  establish  driving  connection  from  the  motor  and 
electric  connection -from  the  coils.  In  modern  four  cylinder  cars  the  pre- 
ferred location  is  at  the  top  of  a  vertical  shaft,  driven  from  the  cam 
shaft  at  or  near  the  rear  of  the  motor.  The  front  of  the  timer  is  usually 
protected  by  a  cover,  frequently  of  aluminum,  which  is  readily  detachable, 
but  provided  against  accidental  loosening. 

Fig.  25  represents  a  type  of  timer  which  is  in  very  general  use,  and 
which  possesses  the  advantage  of  wearing  very  slowly  in  use.  It  con- 
sists of  the  fibre  shell  A,  which  is  mounted  upon  a  bearing  running 
upon  the  timer  shaft  K.  The  collar  C  keyed  to  shaft  K  is  fitted  with  a  pro- 


FIG.  25. — ROLLER  CONTACT  TIMER. 


j action  in  which  pivots  the  arm  E,  and 
it  also  carries  another  projection  L,  to 
which  is  attached  one  end  of  the  spiral 
spring  H,  the  other  end  of  which  is 
attached  to  the  long  arm  of  lever  E,  and 
acts  to  press  its  other  end,  which  carries 
a  pivoted  roller  G,  against  the  inside 
periphery  of  the  timer  shell  A.  The 
steel  contact  B,  which  is  electrically 
connected  to  the  binding  post  F,  is  set 
into  the  inside  periphery  of  the  timer 
shell,  flush  with  its  surface.  D  is  a  lug 
to  which  the  ignition  timing  linkage  is 
attached.  As  shown  in  the  figure,  the 
steel  roller  G  is  rolling  over  the 
fibre  surface  of  the  timer  shell  and  no 
contact  is  made,  but  when,  through  the  rotation  of  shaft  K,  the  roller 
reaches  B,  the  contact  is  established,  the  coil  acts  and  a  spark  is  pro- 
duced. As  here  shown,  the  arrangement  is  that  for  a  single  cylinder 
engine,  but  to  adapt  the  timer  for  use  with  multicylinder  engines  con- 
tacts and  binding  posts  identical  with  B  and  F  are  provided  equal  in 
number  to  the  cylinders  of  the  motor  and  equally  spaced  about  the  in- 
ternal periphery  of  the  shell,  so  that  the  roller  may  contact  with  them 
at  equal  angular  periods. 

As  the  action  of  the  .roller  upon  the  inside  face  of  the  timer  case  is 
of  a  rolling  nature,  there  is  very  little  likelihood  of  the  parts  rapidly 
becoming  worn. 

THE   CARE   OF   TIMERS. 

The  inside  of  the  timer  should  be  kept  perfectly  clean,  and  should  be 
lightly  lubricated  with  good  oil.  (Some  recommend  packing  the  timer 
case  with  grease.)  If  the  track  upon  which  the  brush,  roller  or  other 
moving  part  runs  becomes  irregular  through  use,  it  should  be  trued  up 
in  a  lathe.  The  wires  should  be  kept  tight  in  their  binding  posts,  and 
should  be  examined  for  breakage.  Good  results  need  not  be  expected 
from  a  timer  the  shell  of  which  is  loose  and  "wobbly"  upon  its  shaft. 

SECONDARY   COMMUTATORS  OR   DISTRIBUTORS. 

Up  to  this  point  we  have  been  dealing  with  systems  in  which  the 
primary  circuit  is  alone  interrupted,  and  which  require  a  separate  coil 
for  each  cylinder  of  the  engine.  In  the  distributor  the  secondary  current 
is  also  commutated  and  only  one  induction  coil  is  used  for  the  whole 
engine.  A  primary  timer  forms  a  part  of  the  device  and  makes  and 
breaks  the  circuit  of  the  coil  primary  as  many  times  in  each  two  revolu- 
tions as  the  motor  has  cylinders.  Upon  the  same  shaft  carrying  the 
primary  timer  is  the  distributing  device  for  the  secondary  current,  so 
designed  that  when  a  contact  is  made  in  the  primary  circuit  the  induced 
secondary  current  is  conducted  to  the  proper  cylinder. 

The  advantages  of  this  system  over  the  more  common  method  of 
employing  separate  coils  for  each  cylinder  are  twofold.  As  there  is  only 
one  set  of  wearing  parts,  whatever  wear  occurs  will  affect  the  timing  of 
all  cylinders  equally,  and  consequently  a  perfect  relationship  is  maintained 


at  all  times.  Again,  the  character  of  the  spark  in  all  the  cylinders  must 
be  identical.  This  system  has  come  into  rather  extensive  use  of  late,  and 
will  be  further  described  under  the  head  of  "Ignition  Connections.'" 


The   Dry   Cell   Battery. 

(JULIAN   C.   CHASE.) 

The  source  of  the  ignition  current  used  in  many  one  and  two  cylinder 
cars,  and  indeed  upon  some  four  cylinder  machines,  is  the  dry  cell.  The 
principles  upon  which  this  useful  agent  depends  were  discovered  years 
ago,  and  for  some  considerable  time  nothing  radically  new  has  been 
applied  to  its  construction.  Nevertheless,  the  best  dry  cell  of  today  is, 
in  points  of  capacity  per  pound  of  weight  and  longevity,  greatly  superior 
to  the  best  dry  cell  of  five  years  ago.  This  result  has,  in  no  small 
measure,  been  brought  about  by  the  demand  of  the  automobile  designer 
for  a  source  of  electrical  energy  which  shall  be  at  once  compact,  light, 
reliable  and  durable. 

ESSENTIAL   PARTS. 

In  general,  the  dry  cell  consists  of  three  principal  parts,  viz.,  a  zinc 
element,  a  carbon  element,  and  an  exciting  fluid  or  electrolyte;  and  two 
secondary  parts,  viz.,  a  chemical  depolarizer  and  an  agent  for  holding  the 
electrolyte,  by  being  saturated  with  it. 

In  order  to  have  a  flow  of  electric  current  it  is  necessary  to  have  what 
is  known  as  a  difference  of  potential,  which,  to  use  a  classical  comparison, 
corresponds  to  a  difference  in  height  of  two  bodies  of  water  or  two  parts 
of  a  body  of  water.  The  strength  of  flow  of  the  electric  current  depends 
upon  the  amount  of  this  difference  of  potential,  just  as  the  strength  of 
the  natural  flow  of  water  between  two  points  depends  upon  the  difference 
in  height  between  these  points. 

Zinc,  as  such,  has  a  given  potential  or  electrical  height  when  placed 
in  an  acid  bath,  as  have  also  carbon  and  all  of  the  other  elements.  When 
the  two  elements  mentioned  are  placed  together  in  an  acid  bath  the 
potential  of  carbon  is  found  to  be  greater  than  that  of  zinc,  and  if  the 
solution  be  that  which  is  most  commonly  used,  this  difference,  when 
measured  electrically,  is  found  to  amount  to  approximately  1.5,  volts. 

As  the  cell  itself  must  form  a  part  of  the  circuit  through  which  it 
delivers  a  flow  of  current,  and  as  the  amount  of  current  which  passes 
through  a  given  circuit  at  a  given  voltage  or  pressure  is  dependent  directly 
upon  the  resistance  in  that  circuit,  it  is  evident  that  the  larger  the  cell, 
and  consequently  the  lower  its  internal  resistance,  the  greater  will  be  the 
amount  of  current  which  flows  through  the  circuit.  (It  is  assumed,  for 
purposes  of  illustration,  that  the  external  resistance  in  the  circuit  is  lower 
than  the  internal  resistance  of  the  cell.)  Further,  the  larger  the  cell  the 
greater  the  amount  of  the  material  present  capable  of  yielding  electrical 
energy,  and,  at  a  fixed  rate  of  consumption,  thfc  longer  the  period  of  time 
required  to  exhaust  it. 

COMPOSITION   OF   ELECTROLYTE. 

The  exact  composition  of  the  electrolytes  used  in  the  dry  cells  of  today 
is  in  most  cases  known  only  to  the  manufacturer  of  the  cell.  They  all, 


however,  contain  a  large  percentage  of  chloride  of  ammonia,  or  sal  am- 
moniac, as  it  is  commonly  called,  as  their  principal  part.  Good  results 
have  been  obtained  by  the  addition  of  certain  other  chemicals  which  tend 
to  stimulate  the  electro-chemical  action  and  to  alter  the  character  of  the 
surface  of  the  zinc  so  that  it  becomes  less  prone  to  local  action  caused 
by  inequalities  in  the  metal,  which,  through  a  slight  difference  of  poten- 
tial, cause  local  currents  to  flow  from  one  part  to  another  of  the  element, 
and  in  a  measure  destroy  the  electromotive  force  of  the  cell. 

It  was  soon  found  that  when  nothing  more  than  the  two  elements  and 
an  electrolyte  was  employed,  the  current  produced  in  the  wire  would  at 
once  become  lessened,  and  soon  disappear  entirely.  This  condition  of 
affairs  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  during  the  electro-chemical  action  a 
large  quantity  of  hydrogen  is  generated  at  the  carbon  element.  This 
clings  to  the  carbon  and,  as  it  is  a  bad  conductor  of  electricity,  cuts  off 
to  a  large  extent  the  flow  of  current  through  the  cell,  and  also  sets 
up  a  local  action  within  the  element  itself.  Polarization  is  the  name 
given  to  this  destructive  action,  and  many  means,  both  mechanical  and 
chemical,  have  been  employed  to  overcome  it.  It  is  now  customary  to 
introduce  into  the  construction  of  the  cell  a 
chemical  depolarizer  giving  off  oxygen.  The 
oxygen  so  produced  combines  with  the  hydro- 
gen as  it  is  generated,  and  overcomes  its  de- 
structive effect. 

CONSTRUCTION   OF   CELL. 

Fig.  26  shows  a  sectional  view  of  a  dry  cell 
of  the  type  used  most  commonly  for  ignition  pur- 
poses in  automobiles.  The  letter  Z  in  this  sketch 
denotes  the  zinc  element  of  the  cell,  which  in 
this  case  also  forms  the  container  or  cup  enclos- 
ing the  whole  cell.  This  is  the  first  part  made  in 
the  process  of  manufacture  of  the  cell,  and  is 
nothing  more  or  less  than  a  can  of  chemically 
pure  sheet  zinc  with  soldered  joints. 

Next  within  this  can,  and  in  contact  with  it 
to  the  greatest  possible  extent,  is  the  material 
which  holds  by  saturation  the  exciting  fluid  or 
electrolyte  (A).  It  may  be  a  lining  of  blotting 
paper,  straw  board,  a  paste,  or,  in  fact,  any 
material  or  composition  capable  of  holding  the 
exciting  liquid  as  a  sponge  holds  water.  It  is 

essential,  of  course,  that  it  be  not  affected  mechanically  or  chemically  by 
the  solution  which  it  holds  or  by  either  of  the  elements  of  the  cell.  Its 
office  is  of  a  purely  mechanical  character,  in  that  it  merely  provides  a 
means  of  holding  the  solution  and  of  preventing  it  from  spilling  or  leaking. 
The  carbon  element  C'is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  cell,  and  between 
it  and  the  absorbent  lining  is  packed  tightly  a  granulated  or  partly  pow- 
dered composition  M  made  up  of  carbon  flour  and  black  oxide  of  manga- 
nese, saturated  with  the  exciting  fluid,  the  oxide  of  manganese  being 
present  as  the  chemical  depolarizer.  A  sealing  compound  is  then  poured 


THE  HORSELESS  ACE. 

FIG.  26.  —  SECTION 

THROUGH   DRY 

CELL. 


over  the  top  of  the  cell  to  hold  it  together  and  to  prevent  the  moisture 
within  from  evaporating. 

The  carbon  element  may  be  of  any  of  a  number  of  different  forms, 
but  there  are  certain  shapes  which  for  one  reason  or  another  are  most 
desirable.  Fig.  27  shows  the 


THE  HORSELESS  AC 


,O     €3 


FIG.  27.— TYPES  OF  DRY  CELL  CARBONS. 


three  forms  in  most  common 
use.  Each  has  points  of  su- 
periority when  all  things,  in- 
cluding cost,  are  considered. 

INTERNAL   RESISTANCE. 

When  we  consider  that 
the  cell  itself  forms  a  part 
of  the  circuit  through  which 
it  must  force  an  electrical 
current,  it  is  evident  that  a 
good  electrical  contact  be- 
tween the  various  parts  of 
the  cell  is  as  essential  as 
good  contacts  in  the  exter- 
nal circuits.  It  is  desirable 
therefore  to  have  on  the  car- 
bon plug  or  pencil  as  large  a 
contact  surface  as  possible, 
and  to  have  this  surface  of 
such  shape  that  the  vibra- 

tions and  shocks  to  which  the  cell  is  subjected  will  not  tend  to  loosen  the 
carbon  element  from  the  surrounding  compound.  In  order  to  insure  the 
longest  possible  life  for  a  cell,  it  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  place  it  in  a 
position  on  the  car  where  it  will  be  subjected  to  the  least  amount  of 
vibration  and  jar.  Evidently  this  point  is  not  appreciated  by  a  large 
number  of  automobile  designers.  It  is  also  evident  that  the  cell  should 
not  be  placed  where  there  is  any  considerable  amount  of  heat,  as  in  that 
case  evaporation  will  be  increased  and  the  moisture  within  the  cell  will 
gradually  disappear,  with  the  result  that  the  strength  of  current  given 
off  will  accordingly  diminish. 

SHORT   CIRCUITS. 

The  effect  of  a  short  circuit,  so  called,  or,  in  other  words,  a  discharge 
of  the  cells  through  a  very  low  resistance,  as  by  placing  a  piece  of  metal 
across  their  terminals,  is  to  induce  polarization  at  a  very  rapid  rate,  and 
to  generate  hydrogen  so  fast  that  the  proper  amount  of  oxygen  is  not 
obtainable  to  assimilate  it.  Great  care  should  therefore  be  taken  that  this 
short  circuiting  does  not  occur,  as  a  cell  is  never  so  good  afterward,  be 
the  length  of  time  during  which  it  is  short  circuited  ever  so  short. 

The  ordinary  automobile  battery  is  usually  made  up  of  from  four  to 
six  cells,  having  the  zinc  of  one  cell  connected  to  the  carbon  of  the  next 
one  to  it.  The  effect  of  this  method  of  connecting  is  to  build  up  the 
voltage  or  pressure,  and  consequently  to  require  a  smaller  amount  of  cur- 
rent to  do  the  same  amount  of  work. 


SERIES   AND   MULTIPLE   CONNECTION. 

In  order  to  explain  why,  when  several  cells  are  connected  together  in 
this  manner,  a  greater  pressure  is  obtained,  we  may  refer  to  Fig.  28  here- 
with, and  to  a  fact  previously  mentioned.  It  has  been  stated  that  zinc 
and  carbon  when  placed  in  an  acid  bath  show  a  difference  of  potential 
equal  to  1.5  volts,  the  potential  of  carbon  being  the  higher.  There  is 
caused,  therefore,  by  each  cell  a  drop,  as  it  were,  of  a  given  length. 
Referring  to  the  diagram,  Fig.  28,  it  may  be  considered  that  the  cur- 
rent starting  at  d  (the  carbon  of  the  first  cell)  drops  in  cell  i  to  Zi  (the 


THE  HORSELESS  ACE 


FIG.   28.— POTENTIAL   DIAGRAM.     CELLS    IN    SERIES    CONNECTION. 


zinc  of  the  first  cell,  which  is  on  the  same  level  with  C«,  to  which  it  is 
directly  connected  by  a  short  wire.  In  cell  2  another  drop  occurs,  from 
C2  to  Z2,  which  is  equal  to  the  drop  in  cell  i.  In  this  way,  it  will  be  seen, 
the  total  drop  through  which  the  current  passes  and  the  pressure  result- 
ing from  this  drop  is  equal  to  the  drop  caused  by  one  cell  multiplied  by 
the  number  of  cells.  When  cells  are  connected  in  this  manner  they  are 
said  to  be  "in  series." 

It  can  also  be  seen  that  if  the  carbon  of  cell  I  is  connected  with  the 
carbons  of  all  the  other  cells,  and  the  zinc  to  the  zincs  of  the  other 
cells  (Fig.  29),  the  total  drop  will  be  equal  to  that  of  only  one  cell.  The 

effect,  however,  will  be  to  prac- 
tically make  one  cell  four  times 

as  larSe  as  each  °f  tne  f°ur  so 
connected.  From  this  method 
of  connecting  the  cells,  which 
is  termed  "multiple,"  increased 
amperage  capacity  is  obtained 
and  consequently  a  longer  life 
for  a  given  current  output. 


c         c        c 

THE  HORSELESS  AGE 


FIG.  29. — CELLS  IN   MULTIPLE 
CONNECTIONS. 


Cells  connected  as  in  Fig.  30  are  said  to  be  arranged  in  multiple  series. 
The  voltage  of  the  combination  shown  is  that  of  six  cells  and  the  amper- 
age that  of  two  cells. 

This  method  of  grouping  cells  is  often  resorted  to  when  the  current 
output  of  a  single  set  of  cells  becomes  less  than  required.     When  con- 
nected as  shown  each  set  of 
six   cells    is   called   upon    for 
but  one-half  of  the  total  cur- 
rent demanded. 

There  seems  to  be  a  gen- 
eral belief  that  a  dry  cell,  like 
a  storage  battery,  is  charged 
with  so  many  ampere-hours, 

and  that  the  amperage  read-  c         c         CTH£  HORCsdESS  AGcf 

ing  of  the  cell  will   indicate 

what    this    capacity    is.      In  FIG.  30.— CELLS  IN  MULTIPLE  SERIES 

other  words,  if  a  cell  regis-  CONNECTION. 

ters  15  amperes  on  an  am- 
meter, that  this  fact  shows  that  within  that  cell  is  a  given  amount  of 
current  which  can  be  taken  as  required.  This  belief  is  erroneous.  Prac- 
tically the  only  thing  indicated  by  an  amperage  reading  is  the  internal 
resistance  of  that  cell  at  that  particular  instant.  In  no  way  is  length  of 
life  of  the  cell  disclosed. 

By  reducing  the  amount  of  depolarizer  and  increasing  the  amount 
of  carbon  flour,  the  initial  amperage  of  a  cell  can  be  increased,  but  the 
length  of  life  is  thereby  decreased,  as  polarization  will  set  in  so  much 
sooner.  It  is  well  known  to  battery  makers  that  the  introduction  of  cer- 
tain other  substances,  such  as  graphite,  into  the  cell  will  increase  the  initial 
amperage,  but  the  length  of  life  is  thereby  shortened.  Experience  has 
shown  that  an  increase  of  initial  amperage  beyond  a  certain  limit  is  not 
desirable,  as  it  indicates  an  improper  proportion  of  the  ingredients.  A 
cell  of  th«  standard  dimensions  (6  inches  x  2*4  inches)  which  registers 
from  15  to  22  amperes  is  apt  to  be  better  than  one  which  registers  over 
22  amperes. 

CAPACITY   AND    DISCHARGE   RATE. 

The  efficiency,  as  it  may  be  called,  or  the  total  amount  of  electrical 
energy  obtainable  from  a  cell  per  pound  of  its  total  weight  is,  roughly 
speaking,  inversely  proportional  to  the  rate  of  current  consumption.  It 
is  desirable,  therefore,  in  order  to  obtain  the  longest  life,  to  so  adjust 
the  external  circuit  that  the  least  possible  amount  of  current  be  consumed 
in  obtaining  the  desired  results.  Periods  of  rest  are  also  beneficial,  con- 
sequently when  possible  two  sets  of  cells  should  be  used,  with  a  combina- 
tion switch  so  that  either  of  these  may  be  thrown  into  circuit,  or  both 
together  in  a  series-multiple  arrangement. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  best  results  from  the  use  of  dry  cells  it  has 
been  found  that  series-multiple  arrangements  should  be  used.  It  has 
been  demonstrated,  for  instance,  that  four  sets  of  four  cells  each,  con- 
nected in  multiple  to  make  a  battery  of  sixteen  cells,  will  give  much  more 
extended  service  than  will  the  same  total  number  of  cells  used  in  suc- 
cessive batteries  of  four  cells  each  in  series.  Some  estimates  indicate 

33 


that  over  double  the  service  is  obtainable  from  the  sixteen  cells  used  as 
one  battery  than  from  the  use  of  this  number  of  cells  four  cells  at  a 
time.  Multiples  of  two  and  three  sets  of  four  cells  also  show  decided 
advantages  in  economy  over  the  use  of  a  single  series.  For  one  and  two 
cylinder  engines  the  smaller  number  of  multiples  may  be  advisable,  and 
for  four  cylinder  motors  multiples  of  four  are  preferred. 

These  series-multiple  combinations  may  be  obtained  put  up  in  so  called 
wireless  battery  boxes,  the  connections  being  made  by  automatic  contacts 
in  a  very  secure  and  convenient  manner. 


The  Storage   Battery  or  Accumulator. 

(E.   B.   FAVARY.) 

On  account  of  its  constancy  of  voltage,  large  current  output  and  capa- 
bility of  being  recharged  when  exhausted,  the  storage  battery  is  very 
generally  supplanting  the  dry  cell  as  a  source  of  ignition  current  wher- 
ever battery  current  is  regularly  used.  The  treatment  here  presented 
refers  not  only  to  accumulators  used  for  ignition  purposes,  but  also  to 
those  employed  in  the  propulsion  of  electric  vehicles  and  in  the  lighting 
of  vehicle  lamps. 

In  order  to  thoroughly  understand  the  treatment  and  repair  of  accumu- 
lators, or  storage  batteries,  it  is  first  necessary  to  know  what  a  storage 
battery  is  and  its  behavior  during  operation. 

The  ordinary  storage  battery  consists  of  two  sets  of  lead  plates — one 
positive,  the  other  negative — immersed  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  The  posi- 
tive contains  peroxide  of  lead  (PbOa),  the  negative  spongy  lead  (Pb). 
The  plates  can  be  easily  distinguished  by  their  color,  the  positive  being 
chocolate  brown  and  the  negative  light  gray. 

There  are  two  different  types  of  storage  batteries  on  the  market,  the 
Plante  type  and  the  Faure  type.  In  the  Plante  system  the  peroxide  and 
the  spongy  lead,  called  the  active  material,  are  produced  upon  and  out  of 
the  lead  plates  themselves  by  electrical  and  chemical  processes. 

The  Faure  electrode — often  called  the  pasted  plate  type,  and  now  much 
less  used  than  formerly — consists  of  a  cast  metallic  grid  composed  of 
antimonious  lead,  to  which  the  active  material  in  the  form  of  lead  oxide 
is  applied  mechanically. 

The  plates  are  inserted  side  by  side  in  a  vessel  containing  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  are  connected  to  the  positive  and  negative  poles  of  a 
dynamo,  or  some  other  convenient  source  of  electricity.  On  the  passage 
of  current  the  plates  joined  to  the  positive  pole  are  converted  into  peroxide 
of  lead;  those  joined  to  the  negative  are  reduced  to  pure  spongy  lead. 

The  advantage  of  the  Plante  system  is  that  the  plates  are  more  durable, 
and  that  the  active  material  is  not  so  liable  to  "shed"  or  drop  away  from 
the  plates,  while  the  advantage  of  the  Faure  system  consists  in  the  greater 
capacity  per  unit  of  weight. 

When  charging  the  battery,  i.  e.,  when  a  current  from  the  dynamo  is 
passed  through  the  battery,  the  voltage  of  the  latter  gradually  rises  until 
a  maximum  is  reached.  When  discharging,  the  voltage  gradually  dimin- 
ishes until  it  attains  a  minimum  value.  Fig.  31  shows  the  charge  and  the 

34 


discharge  curves  of  a  cell,  and  it  can  be  seen  that  they  consist  of  three 
parts.  On  charge  the  voltage  rises  quickly  at  first;  then  it  stays  nearly 
constant  at  about  2.27  to  2.32  volts,  and  the  third  part  represents  the  end 
of  charge,  when  the  voltage  rises  rapidly  to  about  2.6  or  more. 

On  discharge  the  voltage  drops  rapidly  to  about  2  volts ;  then  it  remains 
reasonably  constant  until  the  battery  is  nearing  exhaustion,  when  it  will 
commence  to  fall  rapidly  to  about  1.8  volts,  and  if  the  discharge  is  not 
stopped  at  this  point  it  will  very  rapidly  sink  to  zero. 

This  rapid  fall  in  voltage  at  the  end  of  discharge  is  chiefly  due  to  the 
formation  of  sulphate  on  the  surface  of  the  plates,  which  prevents  the 
electrolyte  from  entering  into  the  pores  of  the  active  material,  and  thereby 
causing  the  electrolyte  enclosed  in  the  pores  to  turn  to  water  as  the  SOj 
is  abstracted  from  the  sulphuric  acid. 

On  charge,  when  the  voltage  attains  about  2.3  volts,  the  evolution  of 
gas  commences ;  when  2.5  volts  is  reached  the  battery  is  usually  fully 


2.6 

2.4 
2.3 
2.2 
2.1 
2.0 
1.9 
1.8 
1.7 
1.6 

/ 

j 

^ 

__  —  —  — 

Cha 

ge 

- 

' 

•      ^* 

-—  - 

—  "^ 

/ 

V 

DlscK, 

*ge 

—  - 

-^ 

N 

\ 

\ 

THE  H 

ORSELE 

S  *QE 

1                  2                  3                   *                 5                 e                   78 

Hours. 

FIG.   31. — CHARGE   AND   DISCHARGE   CURVES. 

charged,  and  the  charging  should  be  stopped.  The  voltage,  however,  does 
not  always  indicate  the  state  of  charge.  A  cell  may  show  2.5  volts  on 
charge,  and  yet  quickly  drop  in  voltage  to  1.8  on  discharge,  owing  to  a 
loss  in  capacity;  however,  this  will  be  described  later  under  "Diseases 
and  Remedies." 

When  the  charging  circuit  is  broken  the  voltage  first  drops  rapidly 
and  then  gradually  to  about  2.12 — the  exact  value  depending  on  the  tem- 
perature and  the  acid  density.  On  the  commencement  of  discharge  the 
voltage  drops  still  further,  and  rather  rapidly  to  about  2.05,  and  then 
gradually  within  a  short  time  to  about  2  volts.  Here  it  will  stay  approxi- 
mately constant,  dropping  only  very  slowly  until  it  reaches  about  1.9  volts, 
after  which  the  rapid  decrease  commences. 

35 


If  the  discharge  is  carried  too  far,  or  if  the  battery  is  kept  standing 
discharged,  the  plates  will  be  covered  with  a  certain  amount  of  lead  sul- 
phate. The  presence  of  lead  sulphate  on  the  plates  is  the  most  common 
disease  of  storage  batteries.  It  is  brought  on  by  a  number  of  causes 
which  will  be  mentioned  later.  Lead  sulphate  is  white  in  color,  and  has 
a  very  high  resistance,  and  if  the  elements  or  plates  be  covered  entirely 
with  it— as  would  happen  if  the  battery  should  be  discharged  to  zero,  and 
left  standing  in  this  condition— they  would  become  worthless,  for  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  reduce  pure  lead  sulphate  to  spongy  lead  or  peroxide  of  lead. 
Therefore  a  battery  should  not  be  discharged  below  a  point  which  permits 
the  formation  of  an  excessive  amount  of  sulphate;  the  proportion  of  lead 
sponge  and  peroxide  remaining  must  be  sufficiently  large  to  keep  down  the 
resistance  of  the  cell  in  order  to  permit  the  passage  of  the  charging  cur- 
rent, and  thus  the  regeneration  of  the  battery. 

The  lowest  point  of  discharge  for  batteries  used  for  electric  ignition, 
or  for  other  purposes  where  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  current  is 
required,  is  1.8  volts.  Batteries  used  for  electric  automobiles,  where  a 
heavy  current  is  used,  can  be  discharged  to  1.75  volts,  or  even  below  this 
value;  for  when  the  discharging  current  is  stopped  the  voltage  will  increase 
again  several  tenths  of  a  volt. 

It  should  be  understood  that  "charging"  a  battery  does  not  signify  that 
any  electrical  energy  is  given  to  the  plates  or  stored  in  them  as  electrical 
energy.  It  means  only  that  a  chemical  transformation  is  taking  place, 
producing  a  voltaic  couple  similar  in  its  general  behavior  to  an  ordinary 
primary  battery.  In  practice  this  chemical  transformation  is  usually  pro- 
duced by  an  electric  current;  however,  lead  sponge  and  peroxide  can  be 
manufactured  by  purely  chemical  means,  and  if  applied  to  two  lead  plates 
or  grids  a  fully  charged  storage  battery  would  be  produced.  Therefore 
a  charged  cell  is  one  in  which  the  positive  plate  is  covered  with  peroxide 
of  lead,  and  the  negative  with  spongy  lead,  and  if  a  certain  amount  of 
lead  sulphate  is  produced  on  the  plates  a  discharged  cell  would  result. 

Thus  the  only  bearing  the  electric  current  has  on  the  question  of  charge 
and  discharge  is  that  it  is  employed  as  a  reducing  agent  in  one  direction, 
and  a  product  of  chemical  transformation  in  the  other. 
ELECTROLYTE. 

The  electrolyte  used  in  storage  batteries  should  be  sulphuric  acid  made 
from  sulphur,  and  not  from  pyrites,  as  the  latter  may  contain  injurious 
substances.  The  acid  should  be  diluted  with  the  amount  of  pure  distilled 
water  that  is  required  to  bring  it  to  the  proper  density.  If  the  water  is 
not  soft  or  free  from  lime,  it  should  previously  be  boiled.  The  acid  must 
be  diluted  in  a  separate  vessel  of  acidproof  material,  like  lead,  glass,  etc. 
Care  must  be  observed  in  mixing,  on  account  oi  the  heat  generated.  The 
acid  should  be  poured  slowly  into  the  water  (never  the  water  into  the 
acid),  stirring  well  at  the  same  time.  Use  about  twenty-eight  parts  acid 
to  loo  parts  water,  and  let  cool  before  taking  a  hydrometer  reading.  The 
specific  gravity  of  the  electrolyte  varies  in  different  types  of  batteries 
from  1.200  to  1.250.  In  batteries  used  for  electric  ignition  the  density  does 
not  exceed  1.230  as  a  rule,  while  in  electric  automobile  batteries  1.250,  or 
even  more,  is  not  unusual.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  electrolyte  increases 
continually  during  the  charge.  However,  fresh  electrolyte  put  into  a  cell 

36 


will  not  commence  to  increase  in  density  for  a  considerable  time  after  the 
charging  has  started. 

The  durability  and  the  operation  of  a  battery  depend  greatly  upon  the 
density  of  the  electrolyte.  High  specific  gravity  acid  facilitates  sulphata- 
tion  and  deterioration  of  the  plates;  on  the  other  hand,  the  electromotive 
force  of  a  battery  increases  with  the  acid  density.  The  voltage  of  a  cell, 
however,  is  also  dependent  upon  the  internal  resistance  and  the  tempera- 
ture. Fig.  32  shows  the  variation  in  resistance  of  electrolyte  for  different 
densities.  As  seen,  the  resistance  is  lowest  between  1.200  and  1.250.  Com- 
mercial acid  is  of  1.835  specific  gravity,  while  pure  sulphuric  acid  (H2SO«) 
is  of  1.842.  The  internal  resistance  of  a  cell  tends  to  increase  the  applied 
voltage  of  charge,  and  decreases  the  useful  voltage  of  discharge,  thereby 


Ohms. 
10 


THE    HORSELESS  AGE 


10j£  20^  30%  40%  5df0  60%  70% 

Percentage  in  weight  of  1.842  acid  in  mixtures. 
Sfiecific  Gravity.-  1.069  1.135  1.224  1308  1.309  1.502  1.614 

FIG.   32.— RESISTIVITY   OF    SULPHURIC   ACID    SOLUTION. 

causing  a  loss  of  energy.  But  the  internal  resistance  is  not  only  dependent 
on  the  electrolyte,  but  also  on  the  thickness  and  porosity  of  the  active 
material.  Temperature  variations  are  also  important;  a  rising  temperature 
decreases  the  charging  voltage,  while  the  discharging  voltage  is  increased. 
The  electrolyte  also  affects  the  capacity  and  durability  of  a  battery. 
The  capacity  per  pound  of  element  for  automobile  batteries  varies  from 
4  to  6.5  ampere  hours.  As  a  rule  the  durability  will  be  greater  the  less 
the  capacity  per  pound  weight.  If  the  capacity  per  pound  of  cell  is  high, 
the  layer  of  active  material  must  be  thick,  the  amount  of  electrolyte  small, 
and  therefore  its  density  high.  The  two  latter  conditions  tend  to  shorten 
the  life  of  a  battery. 


.57 


The  plates  of  a  battery  must  be  covered  with  electrolyte;  if  on  account 
of  evaporation  the  level  of  the  solution  falls  below  the  top  of  the  plates, 
pure  water  should  be  added  and  not  acid.  It  is  only  seldom  required  to 
add  dilute  acid,  and  that  is  because  of  the  abstraction  of  the  SO*  on  dis- 
charge, which  combines  with  the  active  material  to  form  lead  sulphate, 
thus  effecting -a  gradual  diminution  of  the  acid  density. 
DURABILITY. 

The  principal  factors  affecting  durability  are : 

(1)  Quality  of  active  material. 

The  quality  of  active  material  must  be  such  that  it  can  expand  and 
contract  without  shedding ;  that  is  to  say,  without  dropping  particles  from 
the  plates.  In  order  to  fulfill  these  conditions  the  material  must  be  com- 
paratively hard  (the  spongy  lead  is  slightly  softer  than  the  peroxide), 
tough  and  porous,  and  have  a  low  specific  gravity. 

(2)  The  rate  of  charge  and  discharge. 

The  rate  of  charge  per  unit  of  plate  area- should  be  within  moderate 
limits.  The  current  should  be  so  proportioned  that  it  requires  about  eight 
hours  to  charge  stationary  or  electric  ignition  batteries,  and  four  hours 
for  electric  automobile  batteries.  In  this  case  the  concentration  of  the 
acid  in  the  pores  will  also  be  within  moderate  limits,  the  contraction  of 
the  active  material  slow,  and,  therefore,  not  harmful,  as  the  material  has 
time  to  adjust  itself  gradually  to  the  changing  conditions.  When  the  rate 
of  charge  is  too  rapid  the  voltage  of  the  cell  will  rapidly  rise  (without 
being  fully  charged),  because  of  the  higher  concentration  of  acid  in  the 
pores,  which  is  unable  to  diffuse  out  into  the  surrounding  electrolyte.  A 
high  rate  of  charge  requires  also  a  higher  charging  voltage,  which  means 
more  energy.  Therefore  a  high  rate  of  charge  is  detrimental  to  the  life 
of  plates,  the  efficiency  of  the  battery  is  lower,  and  if  there  is  much  sul- 
phate present,  the  temperature  of  the  cell  will  be  increased. 

For  the  above  mentioned  reasons  it  is  also  desirable  to  keep  the  rate 
of  discharge  within  safe  limits,  as  practically  the  same  thing  occurs  on 
charge  as  on  discharge.  Yet  a  high  rate  of  charge  is  more  harmful,  as 
in  this  case  the  active  material  is  contracting 'and  may  pull  away  from  the 
grid.  When  the  rate  of  discharge  is  too  rapid  polarization*  is  also 
increased,  and  helps  in  reducing  the  voltage  of  the  battery.  Besides,  the 
acid  is  too  highly  diluted  in  the  pores  of  the  active  material,  thereby  lower- 
ing the  electromotive  force  rapidly,  and  thus  ending  the  discharge  more 
quickly.  The  electromotive  force  (E.  M.  F.)  of  a  cell  is  the  voltage  (V) 
plus  the  internal  resistance  (R),  multiplied  by  the  current  (C)  ;  that  is: 
E.  M.  F.  =  V+(RxC). 

When  a  cell  is  exhausted  or  discharged,  the  current  may  be  compara- 
tively high  at  the  commencement  of  charge,  but  should  be  low  toward  the 
end  when  the  evolution  of  gas  begins.  (If  the  charging  current  is  too  high 
the  evolution  of  gas  will  commence  long  before  the  cell  is  charged.) 

(3)  The  maximum  permissible  rise  in  voltage  on.  charge. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  charging  should  be  stopped  when 
the  voltage  of  the  cell  reaches  2.5  volts.  However,  it  is  well  to  over- 


*  When  a  battery  is  discharged  at  a  very  high  rate  the  violent  reaction  that  takes 
place  produces  an  excessive  amount  of  gas  at  the  negative  plates,  which  keeps  the  elec- 
trolyte away  from  the  plates.  This  is  called  polarization. 

38 


charge  now  and  then  to  about  2.65  volts  (when  the  electrolyte  assumes 
a  strong  milky  color)  in  order  to  completely  rid  the  plates  of  sulphates 
that  may  have  formed.  Accumulators  used  for  ignition  purposes  should 
be  overcharged  not  oftener  than  every  two  or  three  months,  those  used 
for  traction  purposes  at  about  every  twenty-fifth  charge.  A  too  frequent 
or  continuous  overcharge  is  deleterious  to  the  plates,  as  the  gases  formed 
inside  the  pores  of  the  active  material  may  cause  the  latter  to  crack  or 
"shed"  in  forcing  their  way  out.  The  gases  may  also  get  between  the 
active  material  and  the  grid,  thereby  decreasing  the  contact  between  them, 
and  consequently  facilitating  sulphatation  greatly,  as  will  be  explained 
presently.  The  active  material  may  break  or  peel  off  by  virtue  of  its  too 
great  change  in  volume,  due  to  the  absolute  reduction  of  sulphate. 

(4)  The  maximum  permissible  drop  in  voltage  on  discharge. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  regarding  durability  is  probably 
the  minimum  voltage  to  which  a  cell  is  discharged.  If  the  discharge  is 
carried  too  far  it  may  result  in  (a)  oversulphatation ;  (b)  too  great  a 
change  of  volume  of  the  active  material,  causing  buckling,  shedding  and 
breaking,  and  (c)  the  excessive  dilution  of  acid  in  the  pores  of  the  active 
material,  inducing  a  corrosive  electrolytic  action. 

(5)  Time   elapsing   between   the   end   of   discharge   and   beginning   of 
charge,  or  vice  versa. 

Whenever  possible  a  battery  should  be  charged  immediately  after  it 
has  been  discharged,  as  otherwise  sulphatation  will  take  place,  increasing 
in  amount  with  the  time  elapsing  between  discharge  and  charge.  If  a 
cell  is  fully  charged  -and  permitted  to  stand  idle  for  a  considerable  time 
it  will  discharge  itself  by  leakages  and  local  action,  and  the  active  material 
will  in  this  case,  too,  become  sulphated. 

(6)  Density,  quantity  and  purity  of  .electrolyte. 

If  the  density  of  electrolyte  is  too  high  sulphatation  is  facilitated ; 
besides,  it  affects  the  internal  resistance,  as  can  be  seen  from  Fig.  32.  If 
the  quantity  of  electrolyte  is  too  small  the  density  of  the  acid  in  the  cell, 
and  especially  in  the  pores  of  the  active  material,  becomes  too  low;  and, 
as  is  well  known,  the  electrolytic  decomposition  of  highly  dilute  acid  has 
a  corrosive  effect,  shortening  the  life  of  the  plates. 

Impurities  in  the  acid  generally  tend  to  corrode  and  deteriorate  the 
plates,  and  fill  up  the  pores  of  the  active  material,  thereby  decreasing  the 
capacity  of  the  battery. 

(7)  Temperatures  at  which  cells  are  operated. 

A  battery  should  not  be  operated  at  a  temperature  higher  than  100° 
Fahr.  High  temperatures  induce  a  more  rapid  chemical  action,  the  pores 
of  the  active  material  become  larger,  and  there  is  a  greater  tendency  for 
sulphatation. 

(8)  The  separation  of  plates. 

The  positive  and  negative  plates  must  be  properly  separated,  otherwise 
leakages  or  short  circuits  can  form  between  the  plates,  producing  internal 
discharge.  The  latter  condition  obviously  leads  to  sulphatation. 

(9)  Amount  of  lead  in  plates.     (Plante  type.) 

In  the  Plante  type  batteries  the  amount  of  lead  in  the  plates  influences 
the  life  of  the  cell.  As  the  active  material  sheds  or  disintegrates,  the  lead 
exposed  to  the  electrolyte  is  gradually  reconverted  into  active  material  by 

39 


the  charges.     Therefore,  the  life  of  the  cell  is  at  an  end  when  the  lead 
available  for  conversion  into  active  material  is  used  up. 
DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES. 

(1)  Loss  of  capacity. 

After  a  battery  has  been  in  use  for  some  time  it  may  be  found  that 
on  charge  the  voltage  will  rise  to  2.5  volts  more  rapidly  than  previously, 
and  on  discharge  drop  more  rapidly,  the  charge  and  discharge  to  take 
place  at  a  normal  rate,  of  course.  In  a  case  like  this  the  capacity  of  a 
battery  has  decreased.  To  remedy  it  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  give  a 
good  overcharge,  say,  to  2.7  volts,  for  the  reduction  of  the  sulphate  on 
the  surface  of  the  plates.  If  this  does  not  improve  the  capacity  materially, 
or  if  no  sulphate  can  be  seen  on  the  surface  of  the  plates,  the  reasons 
are:  (a)  Some  of  the  active  material  may  have  fallen  off  the  grid.  This 
can  easily  be  detected  when  lifting  the  plates  out  of  the  cell,  or  drawing 
off  the  electrolyte.  If  this  is  the  case  the  grid  or  the  portions  only  of 
the  grid  which  are  defective  should  be  repasted  as  described  under  "Care 
and  Repair."  (&)  The  pores  of  the  lead  sponge  may  be  clogged  with 
sulphate;  sulphate  may  have  formed  between  the  grid  and  the  active 
material,  or  the  pores  of  the  latter  may  have  contracted.  To  remedy  this 
the  battery  should  first  be  discharged,  and  then  the  polarity  of  the  charging 
current  should  be  reversed;  that  is,  the  positive  of  the  dynamo — or  the 
source  of  current  used  for  charging — should  be  connected  to  the  negative 
terminal  of  the  battery,  and  the  negative  of  the  former  to  the  positive  of 
the  battery.  Currents  should  then  be  sent  through  the  battery  in  this 
reversed  direction.  The  voltage  will  first  drop  down  to  zero,  and  then 
slowly  rise  again  to  2.5  volts,  as  the  spongy  lead  of  the  negative  is  con- 
verted into  peroxide,  and  the  peroxide  of  the  positives  to  spongy  lead. 
The  charging  curent  should  then  be  stopped,  the  electrolyte  poured  away, 
and  the  cell  filled  with  acid  of  the  proper  density.  After  this  the  poles  of 
the  charging  current  are  reversed  again,  and  current  is  sent  through  the 
battery  in  the  original  direction  until  it  is  fully  charged,  when  it  will  be 
found  that  the  capacity  has  been  brought  back  to  its  normal  value.  The 
current  used  during  the  reversal  and  the  consequent  charge  should  be 
approximately  one-half  the  normal  charging  rate  of  the  battery,  (c)  The 
plates  may  not  be  covered  with  electrolyte,  in  which  case  the  amount  of 
active  material  not  immersed  will  be  idle,  and  a  corresponding  decrease  in 
capacity  the  result.  The  remedy,  of  course,  is  to  add  water  or  dilute  acid 
as  required.  Besides,  if  active  material  is  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  it 
will  harden  and  oxidize  (this  is  especially  the  case  with  the  negative 
plates),  when  it  will  require  several  charges  and  discharges  before  it  is 
reduced  again. 

(2)  Fraction  and  buckling  of  plates. 

This  is  due  to  excessive  or  unequal  expansion,  or  to  an  unequal  dis- 
tribution or  formation  of  active  material.  It  may  arise  from  too  high 
a  rate  of  discharge,  or  from  carrying  the  discharge  down  too  far,  or  else 
the  distribution  of  current  over  the  plates  was  not  uniform,  thus  discharg- 
ing certain  portions  too  rapidly  or  too  far.  For  the  latter  reason  buckling 
can  also  take  place  at  normal  rates  of  discharge,  that  is,  if  the  active 
material  is  not  formed  or  applied  to  the  plates  uniformly;  under  this 
condition  buckling  is  due  to  defective  plates.  Buckling  may  also  occur 

40 


if  the  discharge  takes  place  at  high  temperatures,  whereby  the  capacity, 
and  consequently  the  formation  of  sulphate,  is  increased,  thereby  bringing 
about  a  greater  voluminous  change  of  the  active  material  than  occurs  at 
lower  temperature.  If  the  buckling  is  due  to  defective  plates  the  remedy 
would  be  not  to  carry  the  discharge  too  far  or  discharge  at  too  high  a  rate. 

(3)  Shedding  of  the  active  material. 

"Shedding"  takes  place  within  limits  in  all  pasted  plate  batteries,  owing 
to  the  greater  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  active  material  which  the 
grid  cannot  follow,  and  to  the  rapid  release  of  gases  at  high  rates  of 
charge  and  on  overcharge.  Shedding  in  greater  measure  may  be  due  to 
defective  active  material;  that  is,  to  active  material  that  loosens  from  the 
grid,  or  that  is  improperly  formed  or  applied  to  the  plate.  The  remedy 
for  too  much  shedding  is  to  charge  at  lower  rates.  Decrease  the  amount 
of  the  normal  charging  current  about  30  per  cent.,  do  not  overcharge 
(stop  at  about  2.4  volts),  and  do  not  carry  discharge  too  low  (not  lower 
than  1.85).  If  the  plates  have  not  been  provided  with  envelopes  by  the 
manufacturer  originally,  a  good  plan  is  to  provide  them  at  the  sign  of 
increased  shedding,  in  order  to  increase  the  life  of  the  battery.  (See 
under  "Care  and  Repair.") 

(4)  Oversulphatation. 

Oversulphatation  or  the  injurious  kind  of  sulphatation  differs  from 
the  normal  sulphatation  of  charge  and  discharge  in  that  it  is  almost 
irreducible.  If  present  in  a  battery  it  causes  loss  of  capacity,  shedding 
of  the  active  material,  buckling  of  the  plates,  an  increased  internal  resist- 
ance, and  consequently  a  lower  efficiency  and  increased  temperature  with 
the  passage  of  current.  If  the  amount  of  sulphate  present  is  too  great 
a  current  cannot  be  sent  through  it,  for  pure  lead  sulphate  has  a  very 
high  resistance.  However,  if  sufficient  lead  or  lead  oxide  be  left,  per- 
mitting the  absorption  of  electrolyte,  and  thus  decreasing  the  resistance, 
the  normal  action  of  charge  and  discharge  will  take  place. 

Oversulphatation  arises  from  overdischarge  or  from  high  rates  of 
discharge,  either  on  the  entire  surface  of  the  plates  or  only  on  certain 
portions  of  them.  Overdischarges,  besides  arising  from  exaggerated  dis- 
charges through  external  circuits,  may  be  due  to  (a)  short  circuits  between 
plates,  (fc)  local  action  and  leakage,  and  (c)  loosening  of  the  active 
material  which  is  discharged  but  not  traversed  by  current  on  charge,  there- 
fore becoming  overdischarged. 

High  rates  of  discharge  may  also  cause  the  formation  of  a  layer  of 
sulphate  on  the  externaLsurface  of  the  active  material,  thereby  preventing 
the  inner  portions  from  participating  in  discharges.  This  causes  the 
action  to  take  place  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  plate,  resulting  in  over- 
discharges  of  the  outer  layer  of  the  active  material,  and  thus  in  the 
formation  of  the  injurious  sulphate. 

If  the  active  material  has  become  loose,  and  is  not  in  close  connection 
with  the  grid,  electrolyte  would  penetrate  between  the  two.  In  this  case 
the  surface  of  the  active  material  nearest  the  grid  becomes  overdischarged, 
and  thus  a  layer  of  sulphate  is  formed  on  this  inner  surface  of  the  active 
material. 

If  the  plates  are  oversulphated  there  is  a  tendency  to  injurious  volumi- 
nous changes  of  the  active  material,  causing  breaking  and  shedding,  and 

41 


buckling  of  the  plates.  Local  actions  and  short  circuits  will  also  cause 
overdischarge,  and  consequently  sulphatation.  As  sulphate  is  white  in 
color,  its  presence  can  be  recognized  by  the  lighter  color.  If  it  has  gone 
very  far  pure  white  flakes  of  sulphate  will  cover  the  plates,  or  their 
affected  portions.  A  good  method  of  treatment  for  oversulphatation  is 
to  charge  the  battery  for  a  long  time  at  such  a  rate  that  the  temperature 
of  the  electrolyte  does  not  exceed  100°  or  102°  Fahr.  In  this  way  the 
sulphate  is  gradually  reduced.  If  there  is  a  thick  layer  of  sulphate  between 
the  grid  and  the  active  material,  so  that  current  cannot  be  sent  through, 
the  plates  should  be  renewed  or  repasted. 

Short  circuits  can  be  prevented  by  keeping  the  cells  clean ;  that  is,  by 
not  allowing  sediment  to  accumulate  at  the  bottom  of  the  cell,  between 
the  plates,  or  on  the  separators. 

If  a  number  of  cells  are  connected  in  series,  and  one  cell  alone  shows 
signs  of  sulphatation,  and  it  is  not  convenient  to  take  it  away  from  the 
others,  it  may  be  kept  in  on  charge,  but  should  be  cut  out  on  discharge. 
By  thus  charging  the  cell  a  few  times,  without  discharging,  the  overcharge 
will  be  sufficient  to  reduce  the  sulphate.  If  it  is  desired  to  reduce  the 
sulphate  quicker  the  cell  may  be  left  in  on  discharge,  but  its  polarity 
reversed.  In  this  way  the  discharging  current  of  the  battery  will  pass 
through  the  defective  cell  as  a  charging  current.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered, however, .  that  cutting  out  one  cell  decreases  the  voltage  of  the 
battery  2  volts,  and  if  its  polarity  be  reversed  and  the  cell  left  in  on  dis- 
charge, it  will  take  another  2^/2  volts,  making  a  total  decrease  of  4^  volts. 
In  case  of  electric  automobile  batteries,  having  forty  or  more  cells,  this 
drop  of  voltage  is  usually  permissible.  Sulphatation  may  also  be  produced 
by  internal  discharge  of  the  cell  due  to  "local  action." 

(5)  Internal   discharge. 

Discharges  take  place  sometimes  in  the  same  plate,  due  to  different 
potentials  between  the  active  material,  or  certain  portions  of  it,  and  the 
grid  or  metallic  impurities  in  the  grid.  This  discharge  is  called  "local 
action,"  and  obviously  it  decreases  the  capacity  of  the  battery.  Local 
action  is  often  due  to  impurities  and  sulphate  deposited  in  the  pores  of 
the  lead  sponge.  The  remedy  is  to  use  pure  electrolyte  and  keep  the  plates 
well  covered. 

(6)  Reversal  of  negatives. 

This  may  happen  when  there  are  several  cells  in  series,  and  one  loses 
its  capacity  for  some  reason  or  other.  On  discharge  the  defective  cell, 
will  go  down  to  zero  before  the  others  are  discharged,  and  as  the  discharge 
proceeds  the  current  will  flow  through  the  defective  cell  in  a  reverse 
direction,  thus  reversing  its  polarity.  The  remedy  is  to  charge  the  cell 
in  the  right  direction  until  the  lead  sponge  of  the  negative  is  brought  back 
to  its  natural  condition;  that  is,  until  the  color  of  the  negative  plate  is 
light  gray.  The  reason  for  the  loss  in  capacity  of  the  defective  cell  should 
be  ascertained  and  remedied. 

(7)  Loss  in  voltage. 

This  is  due  to  an  excessive  amount  of  sulphate  on  the  plates,  which 
must  be  reduced  by  a  continued  overcharge.  The  cause  of  sulphatation 
should  be  found  and  removed. 

(8)  Corrosion  of  the  plates. 

42 


Corrosion  and  deterioration  of  the  plates  take  place  to  a  limited  extent 
in  all  batteries,  due  to  the  action  of  the  acid  and  the  electrolytic  decom- 
position. However,  the  corrosion  or  disintegration  sometimes  takes  place 
more  rapidly  than  is  natural,  and  this  may  be  caused  by  the  chemical  action 
due  to  the  decomposition  of  highly  dilute  acid  in  the  pores  of  the  active 
material.  This  occurs  whenever  the  discharge  is  carried  too  far;  or,  in 
the  case  of  plates  having  a  thick  layer  of  active  material,  where  it  occurs 
when  the  rate  of  discharge  is  high.  Another  cause  for  rapid  deteriora- 
tion is  the  presence  of  lead  dissolving  acids  in  the  electrolyte,  which  attack 
the  plates  and  thus  permit  the  forming  process  to  continue.  It  can  be 
recognized  by  a  constant  decrease  in  capacity  of  the  cell,  and  the  remedy 
is  to  substitute  fresh  electrolyte  free  from  injurious  substances. 
THE  CARE  AND  REPAIR  OF  STORAGE  BATTERIES. 

Voltage  reading  should  be  taken  now  and  then,  and  the  acid  density 
of  each  cell  measured  with  a  hydrometer  in  order  to  keep  informed  as 
to  the  condition  of  each.  The  hydrometer  should  be  flat,  so  as  to  pass 
between  two  adjacent  plates,  and  the  acid  should  be  stirred  before  taking 
a  reading,  as  the  density  may  be  different  at  top  and  bottom  of  the  cell, 
if  the  voltage  or  the  acid  density  is  lower  in  one  cell  than  in  the  others,  it 
will  generally  indicate  local  action  or  short  circuits.  When  the  electrolyte 
is  of  higher  density  than  normal,  owing  to  evaporation,  it  should  be 
brought  to  the  proper  density  by  the  addition  of  pure  water,  or  highly 
dilute  acid.  When  such  an  addition  is  necessary,  it  is  best  to  pour  it 
through  a  rubber  hose  or  glass  tube  extending  to  the  bottom  of  the  cell. 
If  this  is  not  done  the  water,  being  lighter  in  weight,  will  remain  on  the 
top  or  mix  very  slowly  with  the  acid. 

After  a  battery  is  discharged  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  idle 
for  any  length  of  time.  If  conditions  are  such  that  it  is  impossible  to 
recharge  immediately,  the  discharge  should  not  be  carried  further  than 
1.85  volts.  If  the  battery  is  not  used  for  some  time  it  should  be  fully 
charged  until  the  acid  assumes  a  milky  color;  besides,  every  three  or  four 
weeks  a  small  additional  charge  should  be  given  until  the  evolution  of 
gas  begins.  If,  however,  the  battery  is  not  required  for  a  long  time  it 
should  be  fully  charged  at  a  slow  rate,  then  partially  discharged;  after- 
ward the  electrolyte  should  be  drawn  off,  and  the  plates  thoroughly  washed 
in  running  water,  and  then  left  standing  in  pure  water  for  twenty-four 
hours,  changing  the  water  several  times.  After  this  the  water  can  be 
drawn  off  and  the  plates  permitted  to  dry.  In  this  condition  they  can 
be  kept  a  long  time  without  injury.  When  again  required,  the  cells  need 
only  be  filled  with  electrolyte  and  recharged  to  2.65  volts  at  the  normal  rate. 

When  making  connections  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the 
proper  polarities  are  joined  together.  An  easy  method  for  finding  the 
polarity  is  to  take  two  pieces  of  lead  wire,  hold  them  in  a  cup  or  other 
receptacle  filled  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  connect  their  ends  to  the 
two  live  wires.  After  the  current  has  been  permitted  to  flow  through 
them  for  a  few  minutes  the  lead  wire  connected  to  the  positive  pole  will 
be  brown,  and  that  of  the  negative  light  gray.  The  polarity  can  also  be 
found  by  the  use  of  a  voltmeter  which  reads  only  one  way;  that  is,  one 
in  which  the  controlling  magnet  is  permanent. 

The  trouble  of  "shedding"  of  the  active  material  in  Faure's  system, 

43 


or  the  pasted  plate  system,  can  partly  be  overcome  by  the  use  of  envelopes. 
In  case  particles  of  active  material  should  loosen  from  the  grid  the 
envelopes  would  hold  them  in  place,  and  so  prevent  them  from  leaving 
contact  with  the  grid  or  falling  to  the  bottom  of  the  cell,  thereby  causing 
short  circuits  between  the  plates.  Generally,  it  is  only  necessary  to  provide 
the  positives  with  envelopes,  though  sometimes  the  negatives  must  also 
be  covered. 

Envelopes  have  been  made  of  hard  rubber,  celluloid,  asbestos  cloth, 
glass  wool  and  pyroxylin.  Pockets  or  cases  made  of  hard  rubber  or  cellu- 
loid, into  which  the  plates  can  be  slipped,  have  been  found  very  efficient 
and  durable.  Glass  wool,  that  is,  glass  in  a  finely  divided  fibrous  state, 
is  sometimes  packed  between  the  plates  and  works  very  well,  the  mass 
being  sufficiently  porous  to  absorb  enough  electrolyte,  and  therefore  offer- 
ing no  obstructions  to  the  electro-chemical  action. 

When  a  great  deal  of  the  active  material  has  fallen  off  the  grid,  or 
when  the  plates  are  entirely  covered  with  sulphate  and  its  reduction  is 
impossible,  it  is  necessary  to  repaste  the  plates.  Almost  all  active  mate- 
rials are  made  of  lead  oxides,  usually  red  lead  for  the  positive  plates  and 
litharge  for  the  negatives,  to  which  dilute  sulphuric  acid  of  about  1.140 
degrees  specific  gravity  is  added  to  form  a  paste.  The  paste,  which  should 
not  be  too  soft,  but  rather  stiff  (as  little  acid  being  used  as  possible),  is 
then  applied  to  the  grid.  After  the  paste  has  been  applied  to  both  sides 
of  the  grid  it  should  be  subjected  to  pressure,  in  order  to  fill  every  pore 
of  the  grid.  Manufacturers  usually  use  rubber  rollers  for  this  purpose. 
However,  the  author  has  found  that  by  using  two  pieces  of  strong  plate 
glass,  placing  the  pasted  grid  between  them,  applying  pressure  with  the 
hands  to  the  top  glass  plate,  and  moving  it  around  in  a  circular  motion, 
very  good  plates  can  be  produced. 

Some  manufacturers  claim  that  a  very  durable  active  material  is  pro- 
duced by  mixing  red  lead  and  litharge  for  the  positive  and  negative  plates, 
respectively,  with  sulphuric  acid  and  glycerine.  In  mixing,  equal  parts  of 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  and  glycerine  are  mixed  first.  After  letting 
this  mixture  cool,  twice  the  amount  of  water  should  be  added,  i.  e.,  two- 
thirds  of  the  complete  mixture  will  be  water.  After  the  grids  are  filled 
with  the  paste  they  are  allowed  to  dry  for  one  or  two  weeks,  according 
to  the  thickness  of  the  active  material.  After  being  fully  dried  the  plates 
are  assembled  in  the  cells  and  charged  and  discharged  a  few  times,  after 
which  they  are  ready  for  use. 

To  completely  form  the  plates,  i.  e.,  to  convert  all  the  oxide  of  the 
negative  plates  to  spongy  lead  (Pb),  and  that  of  the  positives  to  peroxide 
of  lead  (PbO2),  by  the  liberation  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  requires  about 
100  hours  and  70  hours  for  the  negatives  and  positives,  respectively. 

The  flow  of  current  must  not  be  too  high,  about  6  amperes  per  square 
foot  of  plate,  considering  both  sides  of  each  plate. 

When  assembling  plates  together,  or  making  any  lead  joints  between 
the  lugs  of  the  different  cells,  the  two  pieces  to  be  joined  should,  when- 
ever possible,  be  flowed  or  burned  together.  This  method  consists  in  bring- 
ing the  ends  to  be  joined  to  such  a  high  temperature  that  the  lead  melts 
and  flows  together,  forming  a  lead  weld.  Where  many  lead  joints  have 
to  be  done  it  is  best  to  make  use  of  the  hydrogen  blowpipe,  as  the  hydro- 

44 


gen  flame  has  the  special  property  of  not  soiling  or  oxidizing  the  lead. 
However,  where  only  a  few  joints  are  necessary,  an  ordinary  gas  blow- 
pipe, or  else  an  electric  arc,  may  be  used.  When  the  amount  of  work  to 
be  done  is  very  small  the  joints  can  be  made  by  soldering.  It  might  be 
mentioned  here  that  no  flames  should  be  brought  near  the  battery  when 
the  cells  are  giving  off  gas,  as  there  is  great  danger  of  explosion. 

A«  most  plates  in  present  use  are  of  the  formed  rather  than  of  the 
pasted'  type,  a  renewal  of  a  cell,  after  its  capacity  has  become  irremediably 
very  low,  entails  the  purchase  of  new  plates,  new  positives  being  generally 
required  first,  and  new  negatives  at  considerably  longer  periods. 


Care   and   Charging   of    Ignition    Accumulators. 

(ALBERT  L.  CLOUGH.) 

Storage  batteries  intended  for  ignition  purposes  generally  consist  of 
two,  three  or  four  cells  in  hard  rubber  jars  electrically  connected,  and  car- 
ried in  an  acidproof  case  (Fig.  33).  As  each  storage  cell  gives  about  2 
volts,  the  two-cell  combination  develops  4,  the  three-cell  combination  6, 
and  the  four-cell  8  volts,  and  thus  take  the  places,  respectively,  of  primary 
batteries  of  four,  six  and  eight  cells  approximately.  These  storage  bat- 
teries are  generally  rated  by  their  manufacturers  in  ampere  hours,  and 
the  charge  may  be  considered  as  exhausted  when  sufficient  current  has 
been  withdrawn  to  reduce  the  voltage  of  each  cell  to  1.8  or  1.7  volts, 
which  in  the  two-cell  combination  would  be  equivalent  to  3.4  or  3.6  volts 
total,  in  the  three-cell  battery  to  5.1  or  5.4  volts,  and  in  the  four-cell  bat- 
tery to  6.8  or  7.2  volts.  When  the  battery  is  newly  charged,  its  voltage 

per  cell  may  be  considerably 
in  excess  of  2  volts,  possibly 
2.3  or  even  2.5  volts,  but  it 
soon  falls  to  about  2  volts 
and  remains  thereabouts  dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the 
discharge.  Cells  should  al- 
ways be  recharged  as  soon 
as  the  voltage  has  fallen  to 
1.7  volts. 

INSPECTION  OF  CELLS. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that 
ignition  storage  cells  are  gen- 
erally sealed  in  their  contain- 
ing cases,  it  is  not  easy  to 
inspect  them.  There  is,  how- 
ever, almost  always  a  means 
provided  for  replenishing  the 
liquid  in  case  of  loss  through 
spilling  or  evaporation.  There 

PIG.  23. — TYPICAL  IGNITION  ACCUMULATOR      is  always  a  removable  filling 
(NATIONAL).  plug,  and  generally  a  vent  is 


45 


provided  in  this  plug  which  allows  of  the  escape  of  the  gases  that  are 
formed  during  the  action  of  the  cell,  but  which  will  not  readily  allow  of 
the  escape  of  liquid  through  jarring  of  the  cell.  The  filling  plug  should 
occasionally  be  taken  out  and,  if  liquid  has  been  lost  through  spilling,  it 
should  be  replaced  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  of  the  proper  specific  gravity. 
If  the  loss  of  liquid  has  been  entirely  due  to  evaporation,  it  should  be 
replaced  with  pure  water.  Pure  water  rather  than  acid  should  be  added, 
unless  it  is  positively  known  that  there  has  been  loss  of  acid.  At  all  times 
the  upper  edges  of  the  plates  should  be  well  covered  with  liquid. 

In  case  an  ignition  storage  battery  during  discharge  fails  to  deliver 
its  usual  amount  of  current,  or  loses  its  charge  rapidly  when  idle,  it  is 
usually  a  sign  that  it  is  internally  short  circuited  with  active  material  which 
has  been  loosened  by  severe  jarring  or  through  a  short  circuit.  The  best 
thing  to  do  in  such  a  case  is  to  send  the  battery  to  its  manufacturer  for 
repairs. 

CORROSIVE   EFFECT  OF  ACID. 

The  connections  between  the  individual  cells  of  a  storage  battery 
should  be  entirely  of  lead  and  protected  from  the  acid  fumes  which  are 
constantly  present,  by  some  acidproof  paint.  Indeed,  the  acid  spray  which 
is  produced  by  storage  batteries  when  charging  or  doing  hard  work  is 
very  destructive  to  any  metal  surfaces  in  its  vicinity.  A  coating  of  vase- 
line over  the  binding  posts  and  over  other  bright  metallic  parts  in  close 
proximity  to  the  cells  tends  to  obviate  this  difficulty. 

A  good  storage  battery  ought  to  withstand  a  very  large  number  of 
charges  and  discharges,  if  it  is  intelligently  handled,  but  at  the  end  of  a 
season's  hard  work,  or  if  it  is  not  to  be  used  for  several  months,  most 
manufacturers  recommend  that  it  be  fully  charged,  then  partially  dis- 
charged, the  plates  taken  out,  washed  most  thoroughly  with  pure  water, 
dried  and  laid  carefully  away.  The  acid  may  be  saved  in  glass  bottles 
and  the  jars  cleaned  of  all  sediment.  ^ 

CHARGING   MEANS. 

The  question  of  charging  and  charging  facilities  is  a  most  important 


FIG.  34.— MOTOR  GENERATOR  CHARGING  SET    (WESTERN   ELECTRIC) 
46 


one  to  automobilists  contemplating  the  use  of  storage  batteries.  As  pre- 
viously stated,  the  direct  or  continuous  current  is  absolutely  necessary  for 
this  purpose,  and  is  not  always  readily  obtainable,  as  the  alternating  cur- 
rent is  almost  universally  used  for  public  supply  outside  the  great  cities. 
If  one  does  not  reside  in  one  of  the  large  cities  where  the  Edison  cur- 
rent is  available,  and  no  mercury  arc  rectifier  is  available,  recourse  may 
perhaps  be  had  to  some  private  direct  current  plant  in  a  hotel,  apartment 
house  or  other  public  building,  or  to  an  electric  light  station  where  the 
direct  current  is  still  produced  by  the  exciters  which  magnetize  the  fields 
of  the  large  generators.  Occasionally  one  may  chance  upon  the  owner 
of  an  electric  vehicle  who  has  a  motor  generator  plant  (Fig.  34)  for 
charging  his  own  batteries.  If  not,  a  small  direct  current  magneto  or 
dynamo  intended  for  ignition  purposes  may  be  set  up  and  connected  for 
power  driving  for  charging  purposes.  Wherever  the  direct  current  is 
used  for  lighting  at  a  voltage  of  100  to  125  volts,  the  charging  of  a  stor- 
age battery  is  a  very  easy  matter  and,  in  fact,  where  the  200  to  250  volt 
system  of  direct  current  distribution  is  used  the  same  procedure  may 
be  followed,  although  the  charging  will  be  a  more  wasteful  process. 

The   only   electrical    apparatus   necessary   is   a   series   current   tap   or 
charging  plug  with   its  attached   wires    (Fig.   35).     This   current  tap   is 
merely  a  plug  which  screws  into  the  socket  of  an  ordinary  incandescent 
lamp,   in  place   of  the  lamp  itself.     This 
plug  carries  a  socket  into  which  the  lamp 
may    be    screwed,    and    also    two    screw 
connections   to   which    wires   may   be   at- 
tached    for    connection    to    the    battery. 
When  so  connected,  the  battery  is  placed 
in  series  with  the  lamp;  that  is,  the  same 
current  passes  through  the  lamp  and  bat- 
tery successively,  and  its  volume  will  be 
dependent  upon  the  candle  power  of  the 
lamp  which  is  used,  being  about  one-half 
ampere   with  a   16   C.   P.   lamp,   about   i 

ampere  with  a  32  C.  P.  lamp,  and  about       FIG.    35-— CURRENT    TAP    FOR 
1 34  amperes  with  a  50  C.  P.  lamp  at  no        CHARGING  IGNITION  Accu- 
volts.     The   charging   current   may   thus  MULATOR  FROM  LIGHT- 

be    regulated    and    the    light    from    the  ING  CIRCUITS. 

lamp     made     use     of     during     charging. 

The  connections  may  be  such  that  the  current  passing  through  several 
lamps  may  be  utilized  and  charging  at  3  to  5  amperes  effected. 

•   TESTING   FOR    POLARITY. 

It  is  of  the  first  importance  that  the  current  be  sent  through  the  battery 
in  the  proper  direction,  otherwise  the  cells  will  be  detrimentally  discharged 
instead  of  being  charged.  The  direction  of  the  current  will  depend  upon 
which  one  of  the  binding  posts  of  the  battery  is  connected  with  a  certain 
one  of  the  wires  coming  from  the  current  tap.  In  order  to  determine 
the  correct  connection,  either  one  of  two  methods  may  be  used.  A  strip 
of  red  litmus  paper  may  be  moistened  with  water  and  the  ends  of  the 
two  wires  placed  in  contact  with  it  a  short  distance  apart.  If  then  the 
current  is  turned  on  at  the  key  of  the  socket,  with  an  incandescent  lamp 

47 


screwed  into  the  plug,  a  blue  stain  will  be  produced  in  the  test  paper 
under  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  wires.  The  wire  which  produces  the 
stain  should  be  attached  to  the  binding  post  of  the  battery  which  is 
marked  negative  or  — .  The  other  wire  should,  of  course,  be  connected  to 
the  positive  or  +  binding  post  of  the  battery. 

In  case  no  litmus  paper  is  at  hand,  the  ends  of  the  two  wires  may  be 
immersed  in  a  tumbler  of  acidulated  or  salted  water  and  held  slightly 
separated.  When  the  current  is  turned  on,  small  bubbles  of  gas  will  be 
seen  rising  from  the  submerged  ends  of  the  wires,  but  in  very  much  larger 
quantities  from  one  wire  than  from  the  other.  The  wire  which  gives  off 
the  most  gas  should  be  attached  to  the  battery  binding  post  marked  nega- 
tive or  — ,  and  the  other  wire  to  the  -f  or  positive  battery  terminal.  The 
length  of  time  in  hours  which  a  battery  should  be  left  charging  under  this 
arrangement  is  generally  given  by  the  manufacturers  for  each  size  of  lamp 
employed  for  the  charging  resistance  or  for  any  given  amperage.  When 
the  number  of  hours  prescribed  is  nearing  an  end,  it  is  well  to  watch  the 
battery,  and  when,  upon  withdrawing  the  filling  plugs,  the  cells  are  found 
to  have  begun  to  "boil"  quite  energetically,  they  may  be  considered  as 
charged  and  the  current  may  be  cut  off. 

CHARGING    CONNECTIONS. 

When  batteries  are  charged  from  the  exciter  at  an  electric  light  or 
power  station  it  will  generally  be  under  the  supervision  of  a  skilled 
attendant  who  will  use  a  larger  charging  current  and  complete  the  job 
in  a  comparatively  short  time.  In  charging  from  a  small  ignition  gen- 
erator, a  magneto  or  a  shunt  dynamo  should  be  chosen,  and  it  should  be 
run  at  a  speed  at  which  it  will  generate  nearly  6  volts,  if  a  4  volt  battery 
is  to  be  charged.  An  ammeter  should  be  included  in  the  circuit  and  also 
a  length  of  moderate  sized  iron  or  German  silver  wire,  to  act  as  a  rheostat. 
The  polarity  of  the  generator  should  be  determined  by  the  red  litmus 
paper  test,  and  the  generator  wire  which  produces  the  blue  stain  should 
be  connected  to  the  negative  battery  terminal.  The  connections  should 
not  be  made  until  the  generator  is  fully  up  to  speed  and  generating,  and 
the  current  as  shown  by  the  ammeter  should  never  exceed  the  rated 
charging  current  as  given  by  the  manufacturers,  but  may  be  as  much  less 
as  the  capacity  of  the  generator  may  require.  If  too  much  current  flows, 
a  greater  length  of  resistance  wire  may  be  included  in  the  circuit  and 
vice  versa. 


In  case  no  other  means  of  charging  is  available,  ignition  accumu- 
lators may  be  recharged  from  gravity  or  other  primary  batteries,  by 
recourse  to  the  following  procedure  (Frank  Berry,  Jr.)  : 

As  the  voltage  of  a  storage  battery  for  ignition  purposes  is  usually 
6  volts,  with  a  capacity  of  about  60  ampere  hours,  it  will  be  found  very 
inexpensive  and  convenient  to  procure  about  seven  gravity  cells,  such 
as  are  used  in  telegraph  work  (8x12  inch  size).  The  solution  for  these 
batteries  consists  of  about  3  pounds  of  Milestone  per  cell,  the  solution 
to  cover  the  zinc  at  the  top  of  the  cell.  Connect  the  wire  leading  from 
the  copper  element  in  the  bottom  of  the  cell  to  the  zinc  in  the  neigh- 
boring cell.  When  the  seven  cells  have  been  thus  connected  attach  the 
copper  terminal  of  the  gravity  battery  to  the  positive  terminal  of  the 


storage  battery.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  in  this,  as  a  mistaken  connection 
would  cause  the  current  to  flow 
through  the  storage  battery  the 
wrong  way,  which  would  injure  it. 
Leave  the  gravity  battery  in  circuit 
with  the  storage  battery  until  it  is  fully 
charged,  the  most  satisfactory  way 
being  to  allow  the  gravity  battery  to 
charge  the  storage  battery  overnight, 
as  the  charging  current  is  compara- 
tively small  and  will  not  injure  the 
storage  battery,  if  ordinary  care  is 
taken.  More  rapid  charging  can  be 
effected  by  the  use  of  several  sets  of 
seven  cells,  each  connected  in  multiple. 

It  is  advisable  when  the  storage  bat- 
tery is  fully  charged  to  siphon  off  the 
bluestone  solution  from  the  gravity  bat- 
teries until  they  are  again  required,  in 
which  case  the  same  solution  may  be 
used,  as  the  elements  of  the  gravity  bat- 
tery decompose  when  they  are  not  in 
use.  The  cells  may,  however,  be  kept 
charged,  if  frequently  required,  the  cir- 
cuit being  maintained  closed. 

An  outfit  like  the  above  would  cost 
possibly  $6,  and  it  has  the  advantage 
that  it  can  be  used  anywhere  at  any 
time  by  the  average  person. 

Nearly  all  well  equipped  garages  make  a  business  of  charging  ignition 
accumulators,  and  many  of  them  employ  the  mercury  rectifier  (Fig.  36), 
which  is  a  device  for  changing  an  alternating  current  into  a  continuous 
one  of  suitable  voltage.  When  this  apparatus  is  not  used  a  low  voltage 
dynamo  is  generally  employed.  Rectifiers  are  now  very  generally  to  be 
found  as  part  of  the  equipment  of  private  electric  vehicle  garages. 

The  above  instructions  relative  to  ignition  storage  batteries  also  apply, 
in  the  main,  to  the  larger  batteries  of  from  80  to  120  ampere  hours 
capacity,  now  used  to  light  tungsten  bulbs  in  the  head,  side  and  tail  lamps 
of  cars. 


FIG.    36.— MERCURY    ARC 

RECTIFIER  (GENERAL 

ELECTRIC). 


Magnetos   and   Other   Mechanical   Ignition   Generators. 

(ALBERT  L.  CLOUGH.) 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  supply  of  ignition  current  .be 
of  an  unfailing  nature,  and  that  it  be  independent  of  external  sources. 
The  magneto  being  operated  by  the  vehicle  motor  itself,  and  capable  of 
providing  a  liberal  supply  of  electrical  energy  so  long  as  the  engine  is  in 
motion,  has  come  to  be  generally  regarded  as  a  more  desirable  ignition 
source  than  the  battery.  Both  the  primary  and  the  storage  cell  require 


49 


replenishment  at  somewhat  frequent  intervals,  it  being  necessary  period- 
ically to  renew  the  former  and  to  recharge  the  latter.  The  magneto 
requires  no  such  attention,  it  being  only  necessary  to  maintain  it  in  opera- 
tive condition,  a  minute  fraction  of  the  power  developed  by  the  motor 
being  converted  into  the  required  supply  of  electrical  energy. 

For  this  reason,  and  others,  the  use  of  the  magneto  has  become  ex- 
tremely widespread,  and  it  is  today  the  most  important  feature  of  the 
ignition  field. 

The  synchronous  magneto  being  the  most  important  type,  it  will  be 
described  first.  Such  a  magneto  is  invariably  of  the  alternating  type ; 
that  is,  it  gives  impulses  of  alternating  direction,  and  is  thus  not  compli- 
cated by  any  commutator — the  collection  of  the  current  from  the  armature 
requiring  only  the  simplest  arrangements.  Since  this  type  of  magneto 
produces  a  succession  of  regularly  alternating  electrical  impulses  separated 
by  points  of  zero  electrical  activity,  dependent  upon  armature  position  in 
respect  to  the  field,  it  is  necessary  to  drive  it  at  a  speed  bearing  a  certain 
definite  relation  to  that  of  the  motor,  in  order  that  the  periods  when  a 
spark  is  desired  shall  correspond  with  the  periods  when  a  sufficient  volt- 
age is  being  developed,  as  otherwise  the  sparking  instant  might  corre- 
spond with  a  zero  point  of  ^electrical  generation.  Thus  all  magnetos  of 
this  type  must  be  geared,  or  otherwise  precisely  driven  by  the  motor  to 
be  sparked,  and  it  is  usual  practice  to  so  proportion  the  gear  ratio  between 
generator  and  engine  that  a  certain  electrical  impulse  will  correspond  in 
time  to  the  ignition  instant  of  one  cylinder,  and  the  next  impulse  to  that 
of  the  next  cylinder,  and  so  on.  While  the  current  delivered  by  the 

magneto  is  alternating  in  di- 
rection, so  far  as  a  single 
ignition  is  concerned,  the 
current  is  unidirectional,  the 
current  for  each  spark 
corresponding  with  the  crest 
portion  of  a  single  wave  of 
the  alternating  current. 

A  synchronous  magneto 
may  be  either  of  the  rotat- 
ing armature  type  or  of  the 
inductor  type,  but  whether  it 
be  of  one  or  the  other  type 
the  electrical  impulses  which 
it  generates  always  depend 
upon  a  more  or  less  sudden 
withdrawal  of  the  magnetic 
lines  froni  the  wire  coil, 
which,  under  certain  condi- 
tions, pass  through  it  from 
one  pole  of  the  permanently 
magnetized  field  magnet  to 
the  other.  It  is  a  cardinal 
principle  of  electrical  induc- 
tion that  when  such  a  with- 


THE   HORSELESS  »QE 

FIG.  37.— MAGNETO  DIAGRAMS. 


drawal  of  magnetism  from  a  coil  of  wire  takes  place  an  electromotive 
force  is  developed  within  the  wire.  The  two  types  of  magnetos  differ 
in  respect  to  the  manner  in  which  this  change  of  magnetic  condition  is 
brought  out. 

OPERATION  OF  ROTATING  ARMATURE  MAGNETO. 

Fig.  37  represents  diagrammatically  a  magneto  of  the  bipolar  rotat- 
ing armature  type  with  the  permanently  magnetized  field,  the  H  shaped 
soft  iron  armature  core  and  its  wire  armature  coil.  The  direc- 
tion and  path  of  the  lines  of  magnetic  force  from  pole  to  pole  of  the 
field  magnet  are  also  shown  in  different  positions  of  rotation  of  the  arma- 
ture. In  diagram  a,  Fig.  37,  magnetism  is  represented  as  passing  through 
the  soft  iron  armature,  the  heads  of  which  are  in  close  proximity  to  the 
field  magnet  poles  and  threading  through  the  armature  coil.  In  diagram  b 
the  armature  has  rotated  to  the  point  at  which  its  heads  are  just  passing 
out  of  proximity  to  the  pole  faces,  and  thus  breaking  the  magnetic  path 
between  the  field  poles.  At  this  point  magnetism  is  rapidly  being  dis- 
charged from  the  armature,  and  a  sudden  generation  of  electrical  pressure 
is  taking  place  in  the  armature  wire,  which  impulse  persists  during  a 
considerable  period  of  rotation,  gradually  decreasing  in  magnitude.  When 
the  armature  reaches  position  c  its  core  again  forms  a  path  for  the  passage 
of  magnetism  from  pole  to  pole  and  it  again  becomes  highly  charged,  but 
in  the  opposite  direction.  When  the  position  d  is  attained  the  magnetism 
is  again  discharged  with  the  production  of  an  electrical  pressure  in  the 
wire  as  at  position  b,  although  of  opposite  direction.  Thus  in  each  revo- 
lution of  the  armature  two  electrical  impulses  are  produced,  of  sudden 
rise  and  considerable  amplitude,  with  two  periods  between  them,  during 
which  the  armature  winding  is  inactive.  If  a  magneto  of  this  type  is  to 
be  used  to  spark  a  four  cylinder  engine  its  armature  must  be  rotated  at 
the  speed  of  the  motor.  If  the  motor  is  of  the  six  cylinder  type  the  arma- 
ture speed  must  be  one  and  one-half  times  that  of  the  engine,  and  with 
an  eight  cylinder  motor  twice  the  engine  speed.  Since  in  this  type  of 
magneto  the  winding  is  in  rotation,  in  order  to  collect  the  current,  one 
end  of  the  winding  must  be  grounded  to  the  armature  shaft  and  the 
other  brought  out  through  shaft  insulation  to  a  metal  pin  upon  the  end 
of  which  a  stationary  brush  makes  electrical  contact. 
THE  INDUCTOR  TYPE. 

In  one  common  form  of  the  inductor  type  (Fig.  38)  the  wire  coil  A 
is  stationary,  being  set  into  a  recess  in  the  pole  pieces.  It  is  circular  in 
form  and  of  square  cross  section,  and  its  plane  is  perpendicular  to  the 
axis  of  the  driving  shaft  B.  The  soft  iron  inductor  C,  which  is  rotated 
by  the  shaft,  is  of  such  a  form  that  as  it  rotates  the  direction  of  the 
magnetic  lines  threaded  through  the  coil  A  is  alternately  from  right  to 
left  and  from  left  to  right,  the  change  of  direction  being  effected  with 
the  utmost  abruptness,  and  at  each  such  change  a  powerful  electrical 
impulse  is  generated  in  the  coil.  The  change  of  direction  of  the  magnetic 
flux  through  the  inductor,  and  hence  through  the  coil,  is  dependent  upon 
the  position  relative  to  the  stationary  pole  pieces  of  the  two  sector  shaped 
soft  iron  projections  of  the  inductor  D  and  E,  which  run  very  closely  to 
the  pole  pieces.  These  projections  are  upon  opposite  sides  of  the  coil  A, 

Si 


E  being  shown  toward  the  end  of  the  shaft  which  is  driven  from  the 
engine  and  D  upon  the  other  end  of  the  shaft.  When  projection  E  is 
passing  the  N  pole  piece  (away  from  .the  observer),  and  projection  D 
passing  the  S  pole  piece  (toward  the  observer),  the  direction  of  the  flux 
is  necessarily  from  the  N  pole  piece  into  projection  E,  through  the  body 
of  the  inductor  and  coil  A  from  right  to  left.  When,  on  the  other  hand, 
D  is  passing  the  N  pole  piece  and  E  the  S  pole  piece,  the  direction  of 
the  flux  is  still  toward  the  observer,  but  it  has  to  enter  projection  D 
from  the  N  pole  piece,  pass  through  the  body  of  the  inductor,  this  time 
from  left  to  right,  and  out  through  projection  E  into  the  S  pole  piece. 
It  is  thus  seen  how  the  direction  of  the  flux  through  the  coil  is  reversed 
twice  each  rotation  of  the  inductor. 

The  chief  advantage  of  the  inductor  type  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
winding  is  stationary  and  requires  no  moving  connections.  Both  the 
rotating  armature  and  the  inductor  type  magnetos,  as  described,  produce 
two  relatively  low  tension  impulses  per  revolution,  the  electrical  pressure 
generated  being  comparable  with  that  from  an  ignition  battery. 

Just  as  with  the  battery  system  of  jump   spark  ignition,  two  things 


THE    HORSELESS    IGE 

FIG.  38.— INDUCTOR  TYPE  MAGNETO    (REMY.) 

are  required  to  enable  the  magneto  to  generate  a  sufficient  pressure  to 
cause  a  spark  at  the  plug  gap,  viz.,  a  means  for  suddenly  rupturing  the 
low  tension  primary  current  from  the  magneto  winding  and  a  fine  high 
tension  winding  of  many  turns  placed  within  the  influence  of  the  mag- 
netic field  of  the  ruptured  primary  current ;  in  other  words,  a  transformer 
or  step-up  coil  arrangement. 

The  make  and  break  device,  as  shown  in  Fig.  14,  is  typical  of  the 
type  most  used  upon  synchronous  magnetos.  The  shaft  F  in  the  figure 
is  that  carrying  the  rotating  armature  or  the  inductor.  When  used  as 
a  magneto  make  and  break  for  engines  of  two  or  more  cylinders  the  cam 
is  fitted  with  another  projection  similar  to  E  and  diametrically  opposite 

52 


to  it,  so  that  the  primary  circuit  is  broken  twice  each  revolution.  The 
period  of  the  break  is  adjusted  so  as  to  take  place  when  the  value  of  the 
current  impulse  to  be  broken  is  near  the  maximum. 

Synchronized  magnetos  are  divided  into  two  classes  dependent  upon 
the  location  of  the  high  tension  winding,  viz.,  the  high  tension  and  the 
low-high  tension  types. 

In  the  high  tension  magneto  the  fine  wire,  high  tension  coil  is  wound 
in  close  juxtaposition  to  the  low  tension  coil,  in  which  the  magneto  im- 
pulses are  generated,  so  that  both  coils  are  in  the  same  field.  In  the  case 
of  the  rotating  armature  high  tension  magneto  the  high  tension  coil  is 
usually  wound  directly  over  the  low  tension  coil  upon  the  shuttle  shaped 
core,  being  very  carefully  insulated  therefrom.  One  end  of  each  coil  is 
usually  connected  together  and  grounded,  while  the  free  end  of  the 
primary  or  low  tension  winding  goes  to  the  make  and  break  device,  and 
the  free  end  of  the  secondary  to  the  high  tension  distributor  of  the 
magneto.  In  the  inductor  type  of  high  tension  machine  the  secondary  or 
high  tension  winding  is  wound  over  or  closely  upon  one  side  of  the 
primary  winding,  the  two  coils  forming  a  single  unit  with  insulation 
between  them.  The  connections  are  the  same  as  in  the  rotating  armature 
type,  except  that  the  leads  are  stationary,  no  moving  contacts  being 
required,  since  both  coils  are  fixed. 

The  other  class  of  synchronous  magnetos  is  known  as  the  low-high 
tension  type.  Here  there  is  no  high  tension  winding  within  the  influence 
of  the  machine's  magnetic  field,  and  the  magneto  proper  generates  a  low 
tension  current  only.  The  transformer  is  here  a  separate  unit,  usually 
attached  to  the  dash  of  the  car,  although  it  may  be  attached  to  the  frame 
of  the  magneto. 

In  the  low-high  tension  magneto  the  current  from  the  generating  coil, 
after  passing  through  the  make  and  break  points,  is  conducted  to  one 
side  of  the  primary  winding  of  the  step-up  coil,  the  other  side  of  which 
is  grounded.  One  side  of  the  high  tension  winding  is  grounded  and  the 
other  side  is  led  to  the  distributor  upon  the  magneto.  In  both  the  high 
tension  and  the  low-high  tension  types  switches  are  provided  to  throw 
the  magneto  in  and  out  of  action.  The  usual  method  of  cutting  off  the 
ignition  is  by  short  circuiting  the  primary  winding  of  the  machine.  As 
in  the  case  of  battery  ignition  apparatus,  a  condenser  is  provided  con- 
nected around  the  make  and  break  contacts  in  order  to  intensify  the 
spark  and  prevent  burning  of  the  contacts. 

The  only  other  essential  of  the  synchronized  magneto  is  the  high  ten- 
sion commutator  or  distributor.  In  point  of^  fact,  such  a  magneto  may 
be  regarded  as  an  example  of  the  single  coil  and  distributor  system,  with 
a  single  spark  per  ignition,  the  place  of  the  battery  being  taken  by  a  low 
tension  magneto  generator. 

As  applied  to  the  magneto,  the  distributor  or  secondary  commutator 
consists  of  a  base  or  shell  of  insulating  material,  upon  the  face  of  which 
are  mounted  metallic  segments,  so  placed  as  to  be  swept  by  a  rotating 
metallic  brush  carried  by  the  distributor  shaft,  which  latter  is  usually 
placed  above  and  parallel  to  the  armature  shaft  of  the  magneto  and 
driven  from  it  by  gears.  The  metallic  segments  on  the  distributor  face 
are  equal  in  number  to  the  cylinders  of  the  motor  to  be  ignited,  and  from 

53 


C  K.S  i-  »2  £ 

S  "|  S  3  B. 

H  i-ih-S 

§  il-M^ 

h-1     ™  o.^^  °  £ 
•*"    -ao^ja  u 


<j        —  - 

I  PC! 

' 


each  a  cable  is  led  to  the  spark  plug  of  a  cylinder.  The  rotating  dis- 
tributor brush  is  connected  to  the  live  end  of  the  high  tension  winding. 
When  a  high  tension  impulse  is  produced  in  this  winding,  due  to  the 
rupture  of  the  primary  current  by  the  make  and  break  device,  the  sparking 
current  passes  from  the  secondary  coil  through  the  rotating  brush,  into  one 
of  the  segments  over  which  the  brush  happens  to  be,  through  the  cable  to 
one  of  the  plugs,  across  the  plug  gap  and  through  the  body  of  the  engine 
back  to  the  grounded  end  of  the  secondary  coil.  By  the  time  the  next 
high  tension  impulse  is  created  the  brush  has  moved  to  the  next  segment 
and  the  sparking  current  is  sent  out  over  the  cable  and  to  the  plug  of  the 
cylinder  next  in  firing  order,  and  so  on.  The  distributor  shaft  is  neces- 


FIG.  40. 


sarily  geared  to  run  in  such  a  manner  that  the  brush  will  be  over  a  seg- 
ment each  time  an  igniting  impulse  is  produced.  In  the  magnetos  of 
which  we  have  been  speaking  it  runs  one-half  as  fast  as  the  armature 
shaft. 

In  Fig.  39  is  shown  an  end  view  and  a  longitudinal  cross  section  of  a 
typical  high  tension  magneto,  the  Bosch,  with  the  various  parts  referred 
to  by  letters,  and  in  Fig.  40  are  shown  corresponding  views  of  a  typical 
low  tension  magneto,  the  Remy. 

Spark  time  regulation  is  usually  secured  in  synchronous  magnetos  (i) 
by  varying  the  position  of  the  make  and  break  device  in  relation  to  the 
cam  so  that  the  latter  acts  upon  the  former  earlier  or  later  in  the  cycle. 

55 


This  requires  that  the  magneto  shall  develop  a  long,  flat  topped  current 
wave.  (2)  By  varying  the  angular  relation  of  the  armature  and  its  driv- 
ing gear  so  that  the  former  and  its  related  parts  shall  act  earlier  or  later 
in  the  cycle,  or  (3)  by  varying  the  angular  position  of  the  magnetic  field 
with  relation  to  the  cycle  so  that  the  current  impulses  shall  take  place 
earlier  or  later  in  the  cycle.  Sometimes  these  methods  are  used  in  com- 
bination. 

It  is  very  common  practice  to  install  a  battery  of  dry  cells  in  connec- 
tion with  a  magneto,  thus  constituting  a  so  called  dual  system  of  ignition. 
The  engine  must  be  cranked  rather  rapidly  in  order  to  bring  some  mag- 
.netos  up  to  a  speed  sufficient  to  produce  a  good  spark.  When  the  battery 
is  connected  temporarily  as  a  source  of  current  instead  of  the  magneto 
winding  starting  is  made  much  easier.  The  connections  are  generally 


FIG.  41. 

such  that  when  the  switch  is  thrown  to  the  "battery"  position  the  battery 
is  connected  so  that  its  current  is  interrupted  by  the  magneto  make  and 
break  when  the  engine  is  cranked  over  even  slowly.  The  interruption  of 
the  battery  current  produces  a  spark  from  the  magneto  transformer  coil 
which  is  sent  to  the  cylinder  which  is  in  firing  position,  through  the  dis- 
tributor of  the  magneto.  When  the  engine  is  started  the  switch  is  turned 
over  to  the  "magneto"  position  and  the  battery  cut  out  of  circuit,  the  mag- 
neto current  furnishing  the  igniting  energy.  A  push  button  is  sometimes 
provided  which,  when  operated,  causes  the  battery  current  to  flow  through 

56 


the  primary  winding  of  the  magneto  coil,  and  when  the  button  is  released 
the  current  is  interrupted  with  the  production  of  a  spark  which  may 
cause  the  starting  of  the  motor  from  the  seat  if  the  cylinders  are  properly 
charged. 

Fig.  41  illustrates  the  connections  for  a  typical  dual  system   (Remy). 
MAGNETO    DERANGEMENTS. 

The  following  matter  relative  to  this  subject  is  adapted  from  the 
Autocar: 

Magneto  troubles  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  viz.,  those  which 
stop  the  firing  altogether  in  all  the  cylinders,  those  which  set  up  misfiring 
in  one  or  more  cylinders,  and  those  which  lead  to  weak  running  and  loss 
of  power  in  all  the  cylinders. 

I.— ENTIRE   ABSENCE  OF   SPARK. 

If  the  engine  will  not  fire  on  the  magneto  when  the  switch  is  thrown 
across  from  the  batteries,  or  if  no  spark  be  visible  at  the  plugs  when  the 
starting  handle  is  briskly  revolved,  the  trouble  is  of  the  first  class.  It 
is  not  safe  to  immediately  infer  the  trouble  is  of  this  class  if  the  engine 
refuse  to  start  on  the  magneto,  for  it  might  be  due  to  (a)  gummy  pistons, 
(&)  dirty  plugs,  (c)  any  common  valve  or  carburation  defect,  (d)  a  weak 
spark;  and,  therefore,  the  spark  should  be  searched  for  at  the  plugs  before 
proceeding  to  treatment.  After  proving  beyond  doubt  that  there  is  no 
spark  at  the  plugs  at  all,  we  may  take  it  for  granted  that  the  trouble  lies 
in  or  behind  the  central  revolving  wiper  of  the  distributor.  There  is 
only  one  exception  to  this,  and  that  an  almost  impossible  occurrence,  viz., 
a  simultaneous  derangement  of  all  four  plugs,  or  their  wires,  causing  the 
current  to  travel  via  the  safety  gap  on  all  four  circuits,  or  to  short  cir- 
cuit via  the  engine. 

We  can  easily  discover  if  current  reaches  the  distributor  wiper  by 
putting  a  finger  on  it,  and  revolving  the  starting  handle.  A  smart  but 
not  really  painful  shock  will  be  felt  if  the  finger  be  laid  on  the  tip  of 
the  metal  shaft  on  which  the  insulated  wiper  is  fixed.  If  this  shock  be 
present,  and  be  smart— not  a  mere  gentle,  tickling— the  fault  is  found. 
It  lies  in  the  spring  pencil  of  the  wiper,  which  is  not  making  contact  with 
the  four  segments  it  rubs  against.  The  tip  of  the  pencil  should  be  freed 
from  tough  scale,  and  the  spring  behind  it  pulled  out  to  give  better 
pressure. 

More  probably,  however,  no  current  will  be  felt  at  the  wiper.  In  this 
case,  dismount  the  distributor  and  ascertain  if"  strong  current  can  be  felt 
in  the  brush  which  transfers  the  current  from  the  magneto  to  the  wiper 
(revolving  the  starting  handle  gently,  of  course,  during  all  tests  for  the 
presence  of  current).  If  current  be  present  at  this  brush,  but  does  not 
reach  the  wiper,  there  is  a  short  circuit  between  these  two  parts.  Such 
"short"  will  be  discernible  to  the  eye  in  every  case  after  careful  scrutiny, 
and  will  be  due  either  to  dirt,  oil  or  water,  or,  alternatively,  to  a  visible 
crack  in  the  insulating  material.  A  good  cleaning  or  application  of  insu- 
lating tape  will  provide  an  easy  remedy. 

Next,  supposing  current  does  not  reach  this  transfer  brush.  In  99  per 
cent,  of  such  cases  the  fault  will  be  found  in  the  contact  breaker,  and  will 
be  visible  to  the  eye.  It  may  consist  in  (a)  the  platinum  points  not  making 
or  breaking  contact,  (&)  no  platinum  on  either  of  the  screws,  (c)  a  broken 

57 


metal  part,  (rf)  a  broken  insulating  washer,  Or  (<?)  short  circuits  by  water, 
oil  or  dirt. 

The  remedies  for  the  last  four  derangements  are  obvious.  For  the 
first  no  universally  applicable  rule  can  be  given,  since  there  is  a  great 
variety  of  contact  breakers.  Fibre  enters  into  the  composition  of  many, 
and  fibre  is  obviously  liable  to  wear.  A  replacement  will  set  things  right, 
if  the  maker's  case  of  parts  be  on  board  the  car,  as  it  always  should  be. 
If  not,  a  little  ingenuity  will  generally  suggest  a  makeshift.  Fibre  is 
pliable,  and  often  a  liner  of  wood  or  tin  can  be  pushed  under  a  fibre  cam 
to  give  it  a  more  pronounced  contour.  In  other  cases,  a  strip  of  court 
plaster  may  be  overlaid  to  raise  the  hump  till  a  spare  can  be  procured.  In 
some  cases  mere  adjustment  of  one  of  the  two  platinum  headed  screws 
will  set  the  points  making  and  breaking  again.  In  others  the  same  result 
can  be  achieved  by  sinking  the  fixed  platinum  point  deeper  in  its  bed,  by 
filing  down  the  bed,  so  that  the  diminished  cam  can  still  separate  the 
points.  The  important  point  is  to  ascertain  if  the  points  actually  break 
or  not.  When  that  is  done  observation  can  detect  the  reason  of  their  not 
breaking,  and  ingenuity  can  generally  atone  for  wear,  and  compel  them  to 
break  once  more. 

Next,  supposing  there  is  no  spark,  even  though  the  platinums  are  mak- 
ing and  breaking  contact  correctly,  and  its  parts,  brushes,  etc.,  are  all 
clean  and  unbroken.  In  this  event  the  derangement  is  very  likely  to  be 
a  job  for  the  makers,  and  its  discovery  may  even  be  a  matter  of  difficulty 
to  them.  It  should  be  understood  that  such  a  misfortune  is  indescribably 
rare.  As  a  last  resort  the  entire  magneto  should  be  carefully  dismantled, 
according  to  the  directions  in  the  maker's  booklet,  which  are  usually  very 
full.  If  the  derangement  lie  in  the  interior  of  the  condenser  or  the  arma- 
ture, it  will  be  beyond  an  amateur's  capacity  to  either  trace  or  remedy 
it.  But  very  possibly  a  loose  connection,  a  cracked  insulator,  a  damaged 
brush,  or  a  film  of  oil,  dirt  or  water  will  be  discerned  by  the  eye,  in  any 
of  which  cases  the  remedy  is  obvious.  If  an  armature  connection  be 
visibly  broken,  as  may  be  the  case  with  either  of  two  external  connections 
on  several  makes,  the  greatest  care  will  be  needed  in  remaking  the  con- 
nection. If  the  broken  tag  of  wire  be  pulled  about  further  trouble  will 
be  set  up,  and,  as  a  rule,  a  piece  of  wire,  no  longer  than  an  inch,  will 
have  to  be  very  gingerly  spliced  in  and  covered  with  several  wrappings 
of  insulated  tape. 

II.— SIMPLE   MISFIRING. 

When  the  trouble  merely  consists  of  misfiring  in  one  or  more  cylin- 
ders, even  an  amateur  may  quickly  find  and  apply  a  remedy.  First,  dis- 
cover the  errant  cylinder  or  cylinders;  short  circuiting  the  plug  terminal 
onto  the  cylinder  head  by  laying  the  blade  of  a  wood  handled  screwdriver 
in  contact  with  both,  while  the  engine  is  running,  is  a  simple  expedient 
in  the  absence  of  a  switchboard  or  switch  plugs,  or,  if  the  high  tension 
wires  to  the  distributor  have  plug  joints,  each  wire  may  be  detached  from 
the  distributor  in  turn.  On  tracing  the  faulty  cylinder,  begin  by  taking 
out  its  plug,  setting  the  points  by  a  gauge,  if  to  hand,  or  otherwise  as 
close  as  they  will  go  without  actually  touching;  if  necessary,  clean  the 
plug  head  thoroughly  with  a  knife,  petrol  and  brush.  If  this  do  not  cure, 
change  the  plug.  If  this  do  not  cure,  the  fault  will  be  in  the  wire  from 

58 


the  distributor,  provided  the  misfiring  came  on  suddenly  and  was  pro- 
nounced in  character.  If  the  miss  be  gradual,  irregular  and  only  faintly 
discernible,  the  fault  may  lie  in  the  segment  of  the  distributor  disc  which 
supplies  current  to  this  particular  cylinder.  In  this  case  attention  is 
best  postponed  till  a  repair  shop  is  reached,  as  probably  the  metal  seg- 
ment has  worn,  or  the  insulation  round  it  has  worn,  and  the  whole  will 
need  refacing  in  a  lathe;  but  it  is  worth  while  trying  to  clean  this  portion 
of  the  distributor  with  emery  paper  or  rag,  and,  if  any  metallic  particles 
are  visibly  embedded  in  the  face  of  the  circular  vulcanite  insulating  sur- 
face, to  scrape  them  off,  taking  care  not  to  seriously  roughen  the  surface 
(else  the  wiper  will  begin  to  jump). 

III. — WEAK    RUNNING   AND   GENERAL    Loss    OF    POWER. 

Sometimes  no  actual  miss  and  no  absence  of  the  sparks  can  be  discov- 
ered, and  yet  the  entire  engine  is  sluggish  and  difficult  to  start,  also  fall- 
ing away  rapidly  on  hills,  and  calling  for  a  lower  gear  than  formerly 
under  accustomed  circumstances.  Before  tampering  with  the  magneto 
every  precaution  must  be  taken  to  insure  that  the  fault  does  not  really 
lie  in  the  valves,  carburation,  etc.  Where  a  supplementary  ignition  system 
is  fitted  this  is  easily  tested,  as  the  engine  will  behave  properly  on  the 
reserve  system.  When  the  fault  is  traced  to  the  magneto,  without  any 
possible  room  for  doubt,  it  is  quite  an  inexpensive  matter  to  return  it  to 
the  makers.  They  will  clean  it,  reface  all  brushes  and  contacts,  renew 
all  weakened  springs,  etc.,  for  a  reasonable  sum.  But  if  it  be  preferred 
to  tackle  the  matter  at  home,  wear  and  resistance  are  the  two  factors 
to  be  dealt  with.  Wear  is  to  be  looked  for  chiefly  in  the  contact  breaker 
(vide  under  I),  and  the  springs  here  may  have  lost  "set."  Resistance 
will  be  found  wherever  dirt,  oil  or  grease  exist  within  the  magneto, 
particularly  beneath  small  screwed-on  parts,  such  as  insulating  washers 
or  along  shafts,  or  beneath  brushes,  and  also  wherever  a  carbon  brush 
has  been  allowed  to  wear  hard  and  scaly  on  the  tip.  Demagnetization  of 
the  horseshoes  should  never  occur  under  two  or  three'  years  of  running. 
This  job,  in  any  case,  entails  the  dismounting  of  the  entire  magneto,  and 
whoever  does  .the  work  must  not  forget  to  lay  a  piece  of  iron — a  couple 
of  spanners  will  serve — across  the  horseshoes  if  they  are  detached  first,  or 
between  them  if  the  armature  is  taken  out  before  the  horseshoes  are 
dismounted.  On  the  whole,  it  is  probably  advisable  to  return  the  machine 
to  the  makers  in  all  cases  of  general  debility,  as  they  will  then  test  the 
entire  mechanism,  remedy  any  unsuspected  derangement  in  the  condenser, 
etc.,  and  return  it  absolutely  as  good  as  new. 

NON-SYNCHRONOUS    MAGNETOS. 

These  machines  may  either  produce  a  direct  or  an  alternating  current, 
but  their  speed  need  not  bear  any  definite  relationship  to  that  of  the 
engine.  They  produce  a  low  voltage  current,  and  are  merely  mechanical 
substitutes  for  a  battery,  and  may  be  used  as  the-  source  of  electrical 
energy  to  operate  any  of  the  regular  battery  systems,  such  as  the  multiple 
vibrator  coil  system  or  the  single  coil  and  distributor  system.  These 
machines  may  be  driven  from  the  engine  either  through  gears  or  by 
means  of  friction  pulleys  or  belts. 

Fig.  42  represents  a  typical  machine  of  the  direct  current  type,  develop- 
ing about  6  volts.  This  is  nothing  more  than  a  small  direct  current 

59 


FIG.  42. — DIRECT  CURRENT  MAGNETO  GENER- 

<  ATOR     (  HOLTZER-  CABOT )  . 


generator  with  perma- 
nent fields  and  drum 
wound  armature,  com- 
mutator and  brushes. 

As  the  voltage  of 
such  a  generator  in- 
creases with  its  speed, 
and  as  the  speed  of  the 
engine  which  drives  it 
varies  through  very  wide 
limits,  it  is  necessary  to 
provide  it  with  an 'auto- 
matic speed  governor,  so 
that  the  voltage  delivered 
may  be  maintained  con- 
stant, even  though  the 
speed  of  the  engine  fluc- 
tuates widely.  This  gov- 
ernor is  usually  in  the 
form  of  an  automatically 

operated  friction  clutch  interposed  between  the  driving  pulley  or  gear 
and  the  armature  shaft.  Such  a  clutch  is  operated  by  means  of  a  flyball 
governor  carried  upon  the  armature  shaft.  When  the  speed  is  less  than 
that  required,  springs  hold  the  balls  of  the  governor  from  moving  out- 
wardly and  the  clutch  is  kept  in  engagement.  When,  however,  the  speed 
exceeds  the  desired  value,  the  governor  balls  fly  out  and  disengage  the 
clutch,  allowing  the  armature  shaft  to  slow  down.  These  two  actions, 
continually  repeated,  result  in  the  maintenance  of  a  fairly  constant  speed, 

and  hence  a  constant  voltage. 

In  Fig.  43  is  represented  a  low 
tension  magneto  of  the  alternating 
current  type.  This  is  of  the  inductor 
type,  with  stationary  winding,  and 
delivers  two  waves  of  large  ampli- 
tude per  revolution.  It  is  driven  by 
gearing,  belt  or  friction  at  about  four 
times  the  speed  of  the  engine,  so 
that  eight  current  waves  are  avail- 
able during  each  engine  turn.  These 
waves  thus  come  so  close  together 
that  there  is  always  current  available 
at  practically  the  instant  when  the 
timer  of  the  ignition  system  makes 
contact  and  the  coil  vibrator  is  ready 
to  break  the  circuit.  This  machine 
can  be  used  with  any  vibrator  coil 
system  as  a  substitute  for  a  battery, 
Its  output  is  sufficient  to  cause  a 
spark  at  the  low  speed  at  which  the 
engine  may  be  cranked,  and  its  out- 


FIG.    43. — ALTERNATING    CURRENT 
Low  TENSION  MAGNETO  (K-W). 


put  increases  but  little  even  when  the  engine  is  running  at  its  maximum 
rate,  on  account  of  reactions  within  the  machine  itself.  This  is  a  charac- 
teristic of  all  alternating  current  ignition  generators,  including  those 
of  the  synchronized  type.  Besides  furnishing  ignition  current,  genera- 
tors of  this  type  and  of  the  direct  current  type  as  well  may  be  simul- 
taneously employed  to  supply  tungsten  bulbs  in  the  lamps. 
DYNAMO  GENERATORS. 

A  dynamo  differs  from  a  magneto  only  in  having  field  magnets  of  very 
soft  iron  or  steel,  wound  with  wire,  through  which  circulates  the  whole 
or  a  portion  of  the  current  generated  by  the  machine.  The  field  magnets 
of  such  a  generator  thus  become  stronger  and  stronger  the  more  current 
passes  around  them,  and  as  the  magnetic  strength  increases  the  voltage  of 
the  current  generated  increases,  and  so  on.  A  dynamo  thus  is  not  self 
regulating  for  maximum  output,  and,  under  some  circumstances,  it  may 
be  overheated  or  even  burned  out  in  an  effort  to  furnish  a  current  beyond 
its  capabilities,  on  account  of  this  faculty  of  automatically  strengthening 
its  own  fields  or  of  maintaining  their  strength  with  increased  output. 

If  a  dynamo  field  is  wound  in  such  a  manner  that  a  fraction  of  its 
current  output  is  set  apart  to  magnetize  the  fields,  the  faster  it  is  run  the 
higher  voltage  will  be  generated  in  its  armature,  and  with  the  increase 
in  voltage  the  greater  current  will  pass  through  the  fields,  giving  a  still 
stronger  induction  in  the  armature,  and  so  on,  in  a  rapidly  self  increasing 
manner. 

SPEED   GOVERNORS. 

Dynamos,  therefore,  cannot  be  driven  at  the  widely  varying  speeds 
met  with  in  the  operation  of  any  gasoline  engine,  as  at  the  high- 
est speeds  voltage  destructive  to  the  generator  itself  and  the  ap- 
paratus in  connection  with  it  would  be  produced,  while  at  the 
lowest  speeds  the  voltage 
developed  might  be  quite  in- 
adequate. These  generators 
thus  require  to  be  driven 
at  an  approximately  uniform 
speed  independent  of  the 
speed  of  the  engine,  and  a 
regulating  device  is  thus 
necessitated.  The  electrical 
output  of  a  dynamo  is  very 
large  in  proportion  to  that 
of  a  magneto  of  the  same 
size. 

MANNER    OF    USING 
DYNAMOS. 

At  the  present  time  prac- 
tically the  only  use  being 
made  of  the  dynamo  for 
ignition  purposes  is  the  in- 
direct, one  of  continuously 
charging  ignition  accumula-  FIG.  44. — BATTERY  CHARGING  DYNAMO  WITH 
tors  upon  the  vehicle.  A  SPEED  REGULATOR  (APPLE). 

61 


Aut, 


bipolar,  shunt  wound  dynamo  is  employed,  driven  from  the  engine  balance 
wheel  through  an  automatic  speed  regulating  friction  pulley,  so  that  its 
its  voltage  is  practically  constant,  irrespective  of  motor  speed.  The  dynamo 
voltage  being  so  adjusted  that  it  is  slightly  higher  than  that  of  the  storage 
battery,  the  latter  is  being  constantly  charged  to  replace  the  energy  which  is 
being  drawn  from  the  battery  by  the  coils.  In  this  manner  the  accumulator 
is  constantly  kept  at  full  charge,  and  enough  electrical  energy  may  be  drawn 
from  it  to  give  a  hot  spark  without  fear  of  exhausting  the  supply  of 
stored  energy.  An  automatic  cut-out  is  made  use  of,  which  disconnects 
the  dynamo  from  the  battery  when  the  engine  stops  and  prevents  the 
accumulator  from  discharging  through  it,  and  a  voltmeter  shows  the 
condition  of  the  battery  at  all  times.  The  battery  in  this  system  is  said 
to  be  floated  on  the  line.  The  connections  are  shown  in  Fig.  44. 

Recently  some  small  direct  current  dynamos  have  been  designed  which 
are  nearly  self  regulating,  their  internal  reactions  being  so  adjusted  as 
to  give  them  this  quality,  and  these  require  no  automatic  speed  regulators, 
but  do  require  a  cut-out  to  control  their  connection  to  and  disconnection 
from  the  storage  battery  which  they  charge. 

The  recent  great  growth  in  popularity  of  electric  vehicle  lighting 
confers  a  'new  importance  upon  the  battery  charging  dynamo.  When  a 
storage  battery  and  dynamo  system  is  installed  upon  a  car,  both  lighting 
and  ignition  current  may  be  drawn  from  the  battery,  whether  the  engine 
is  running  or  not,  and  the  system  requires  no  replenishing  from  any 
outside  source. 

SPECIAL   BATTERY    SYSTEMS. 

It  has  for  some  time  been  realized  that  the  consumption  of  current  by 
the  vibrator  coil  system  is  unnecessarily  large.  In  order  to  meet  this 
objection  and  secure  conditions  under  which 
the  battery  need  be  renewed  only  at  very 
long  intervals,  a  number  of  battery  saving 
systems  have  been  brought  out.  The  fol- 
lowing description  relates  to  one  of  the 
most  prominent  of  these,  the  Atwater 
Kent  (Fig.  "45). 

-It  is  well  known  to  those  versed  in  the 
subject  that  an  appreciable  time  is  required 
to  build  up  the  magnetism  in  an  ordinary 
vibrator  coil,  this  period  being  about  1-150 
second.  The  vibrator,  which  is  set  in  mo- 
tion by  this  magnetism  and  then  ruptures 
the  circuit,  cannot  start,  of  course,  until  this 
magnetism  has  been  established.  There  is, 
then,  another  brief  interval  while  the  vi- 
brator is  passing  from  its  high  to  its  low 
point.  Then  comes  another  pause  when 
the  vibrator  stops  pulling  down  and  returns 
to  close  the  circuit  again.  It  is  easily  under-  • 
stood  that,  with  such  a  system,  a  commu- 
tator is  necessary  which  will  hold  a  con- 
tact long  enough  at  the  highest  engine 

62 


FIG.     45. — ATWATER     KENT 

FOUR    CYLINDER 

UNISPARKER. 


speed,  so  that  the  vibrator  may  open  and  produce  at  least  one  spark; 
otherwise  there  will  be  no  explosion,  with  a  consequent  missing  of  the 
engine. 

This  object  is  generally  obtained  in  a  satisfactory  manner  by  having 
from  one-half  to  three-quarter  inch  contact  at  the  timer  for  the  roller  to 
rotate  across,  and  at,  say,  2,000  r.  p.  m.  only  one  spark  will  be  produced. 
We  will  now  suppose,  however,  that  the  engine  speed  is  reduced  to  200 
revolutions,  to  use  round  figures.  Since  it  will  take  the  roller  ten  times 
as  long  to  pass  over  the  segment  of  the  commutator  at  this  speed,  it  is 
evident  that  the  vibrator  will  have  a  chance  to  move  up  and  down  ten 
times,  and  will  consequently  produce  ten  times  as  many  sparks  for  each 
explosion.  Of  these  the  first  spark  does  the  business,  the  rest  being 
wasted,  taking  place  in  either  a  live  flame  or  a  hot  dead  gas.  These 
constantly  recurring  sparks  require  a  considerable  amount  of  battery  cur- 
rent, which  is  very -destructive  upon  the  source  of  supply,  especially  if  it 
be  a  supply  of  limited  amount,  such  as  dry  cells. 

It  may  be  easily  seen  that  if  the  speed  were  averaged  up  so  that  one 
spark  only  was  produced  at  all  times  the  single  spark  apparatus  would 
give  five  times  as  great  a  mileage  as  the  vibrator  coil.  If  the  latter  gives 
500  miles  to  one  set  of  dry  cells  it  is  evident  that  the  ideal  single  spark 
apparatus  will  give  2,500  miles.  Now  let  us  see  how  this  theory  is  worked 
out  in  the  actual  Atwater  Kent  apparatus. 

It  will  be  seen  that  as  the 
notched  shaft  A-A  is  rotated  in  the 
direction  shown  by  the  arrow,  the 
lifter  A-D  is  carried  forward  for 
about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  against 
the  tension  of  the  spring  A-E.  Fig. 
47  shows  the  limit  of  movement  in 
this  direction,  which  is  at  the  point 
where  it  is  about  to  snap  off,  this 
occurring  upon  a  slight  further  ro- 
tation of  the  shaft.  (See  Fig.  48.) 
The  lifter  then  loses  its  hold  upon 
the  notch  and,  sliding  back  under 
the  tension  of  the  spring  A-E,  rides 
up  over  the  rounded  portion  of  the 
notched  shaft  A-A,  and  pushes  FlG-  46. 

against  the  nose  of  the  contact  arm 

A-F,  forcing  the  platinum  spring  on  the  contact  arm  against  the  platinum 
contact  screw  A-H.  Sliding  back  still  further  to  return  to  its  original 
position,  as  in  Fig.  46,  the  nose  of  the  lifter  no  longer  touches  the  con- 
tact arm,  and  the  latter  returns  to  its  normal  position  under  the  influence 
of  the  spring  A-G,  carrying  the  platinum  spring  with  it  and  thus  opening 
the  primary  circuit.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  this  contact  is  absolutely 
uninfluenced  by  any  consideration  of  engine  speed,  since  the  contact  is 
made  by  the  snapping  back  of  the  lifter,  the  speed  of  which  is  con- 
stant at  all  times.  By  adjusting  the  screw  A-H  inward  to  make  a 
smaller  normal  gap  between  the  platinums,  a  longer  contact  is  made, 
which  results  in  a  hotter  spark.  Turning  the  screw  back  and  open- 

63 


FIG.  47- 


ing  the  gap  produces  a  weaker 
spark  and  uses  less  current.  The 
spark  is  produced  in  the  secondary 
winding  by  the  rupture  of  the  pri- 
mary circuit  after  a  current  has 
once  been  established  in  the  primary 
winding. 

As  will  be  seen,  therefore,  this 
simple  apparatus  not  only  performs 
the  function  of  a  set  of  vibrators 
opening  and  closing  the  circuit  with 
extreme  rapidity,  but  it  also  times 
the  spark  for  a  four  cylinder  mo- 
tor, since,  provided  the  notches  in 
the  shaft  A-A  be  milled  accurately, 
the  synchronism  of  the  spark  pro- 
duced must  be  perfect. 

Having  a  large  coil  in  connection  with  the  apparatus,  which  it  is  not 
necessary  to  saturate  in  order  to  obtain  a  good  spark,  an  extremely  quick 
contact  can  be  made.  The  Atwater  Kent  contact  maker  is  claimed  to 
be  far  more  rapid  than  any  vibrator,  and  therefore  obviates  the  annoying 
skipping  or  missing  often  found  when  running  at  high  engine  speed  on 
account  of  the  vibrators  not  working  quickly  enough.  This  quick  contact 
also  tends  toward  battery  economy. 
Another  point  which  increases  the 
mileage  to  be  obtained  with  this 
system  is  the  fact  that  no  part  of 
the  mechanism  depends  upon  any 
magnetic  action.  With  a  vibrator 
coil  an  ordinary  set  of  dry  cells 
becomes  useless  after  it  is  run  down 
to  about  six  or  seven  amperes,  since 
the  battery  no  longer  has  strength 
to  pull  down  the  vibrators,  thus 
rupturing  the  current  and  produc- 
ing a  spark.  The  contact  being 
made  mechanically  with  the  At- 
water Kent  system,  it  is  possible  to 
take  a  set  of  cells  which  are  abso- 
lutely worthless  with  a  vibrator  coil 
and  obtain  several  hundred  miles  of  good  running  from  them.  There  is 
a  convenient  adjustment  provided,  which,  by  a  quarter  turn  of  a  screw, 
will  give  hot  sparks  from  even  a  weak  battery,  thus  obviating  the  annoy- 
ance of  being  obliged  to  put  up  with  the  faulty  ignition  for  the  sake  of 
draining  the  cells  to  the  last  possible  mark. 

The  advantages  which  are  claimed  for  this  apparatus  are:  Battery 
economy;  a  hot  spark,  unvarying  in  heat  at  all  speeds,  and  delivered  with 
perfect  regularity;  simplicity  of  construction  and  consequent  reliability, 
and  very  slight  wear  at  the  platinum  contacts,  making  frequent  adjust- 
ment unnecessary. 


FIG.  48. 


Electrical   Measuring   Instruments  and   Their   Use. 

(ALBERT  L.  CLOUGH.) 

The  instrument  used  for  measuring  electrical  pressure  is  the  voltmeter, 
and  that  which  shows  the  volume  of  the  current  or  the  rate  of  flow  of 
electricity  is  called  the  amperemeter  or  ammeter.  When  the  two  instru- 
ments are  combined  in  a  single  case  the  combination  is  called  a  volt- 
ammeter. 

PRINCIPLE  OF  ACTION  OF  INSTRUMENTS. 

When  an  electric  current  is  passed  through  a  wire  wound  about  a  piece 
of  soft  iron  this  iron  becomes  a  magnet,  of  a  strength  nearly  proportional 
to  the  current  passing  about  it,  and  this  magnet  may  be  made  to  attract, 
against  the  action  of  a  spring,  a  small  pivoted  piece  of  soft  iron  which 
carries  a  pointer  moving  over  a  scale  and  graduated  in  divisions  which 
may  be  so  proportioned  as  to  represent  amperes  flowing  in  the  wire,  or 
the  pressure  in  volts  which  are  applied  to  it.  Or,  as  is  more  often  the 
case,  the  coil  of  wire  may  be  used  without  its  soft  iron  core  and  a  small 
pivoted  piece  of  soft  iron  so  arranged  as  to  be  drawn  into  the  wire  coil 
by  the  magnetism  due  to  the  current  to  be  measured  against  the  pull  of 
a  spring.  The  moving  soft  iron  portion  is,  of  course,  provided  with  a 
pointer  moving  over  a  graduated  scale.  An  instrument  of  this  construc- 
tion is  said  to  be  of  the  solenoid  type,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  small 
pocket  instruments  provided  for  automobilists  are  of  this  kind.  Instru- 
ments of  the  permanent  magnetic  field  type  are,  however,  quite  largely 
used.  In  these  the  moving  part  is  a  delicately  pivoted  coil  of  wire 
between  the  poles  of  a  permanent  magnet.  This  type  of  instrument 
requires  that  one  of  its  two  terminals  shall  always  be  attached  to  the 
positive  and  the  other  to  the  negative  pole  of  the  circuit  in  order  that  a 
reading  may  be  obtained.  With  the  solenoid  type  of  instrument  the 
connection  of  the  terminals  is  a  matter  of  indifference. 

DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  AMMETER  AND  VOLTMETER. 

The  coil  of  the  ammeter  consists  of  a  few  turns  of  very  coarse  wire 
and  offers  practically  no  resistance  to  the  passage  of  current,  so  that 
when  the  instrument  is  connected  by  means  of 
good  conducting  wires  to  the  poles  of  a  battery 
cell,  the  current  which  flows  is  practically  the 
greatest  that  the  cell  is  capable  of  furnishing, 
and  may  be  regarded  as  its  maximum  current 
on  "short  circuit,"  that  is,  through  a  circuit 
of  practically  no  resistance  except  that  due  to 
the  materials  of  which  the  cell  is  composed. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  coil  of  the  voltmeter 
is  composed  of  a  large  numtter  of  turns  of 
very  fine  wire  and,  when  connected  to  the 
poles  of  a  battery  cell,  offers  so  great  a  re-  FJG .  4Q._Po~AMMETER. 
sistance  or  obstruction  to  the  electrical  pres- 
sure that  only  a  very  minute  current  flows.  The  current  which  does  flow 
is,  however,  in  proportion  to  the  electrical  pressure  or  voltage,  as  is  also 
the  magnetic  attraction  of  the  coil  within  the  instrument,  which  thus  can 
be  graduated  to  read  in  volts. 

65 


COMBINATION  INSTRUMENTS. 

Within  the  volt-ammeter  there  are  two  coils  upon  which  the  indica- 
tions of  the  instrument  depend — an  ammeter  coil  of  a  few  coarse  turns, 
and  a  voltmeter  coil  of  many  fine  turns.  These  two  coils  are  usually 
connected  together  at  one  end  to  a  common  terminal  and  their  free  ends 
brought  out  to  separate  terminals.  Most  of  these  measuring  instruments 
intended  for  automobile  use  are  made  in  watch  case  form  of  a  size  con- 
venient for  the  pocket  (Fig.  49),  and  while  by  no  means  to  be  regarded 
as  instruments  of  precision,  are,  if  carefully  used,  sufficiently  accurate 
for  the  rough  measurements  required,  and  if  their  readings  cannot  always 
be  regarded  as  of  absolute  value,  they  are  still  of  value  for  purposes  of 
comparison.  The  ammeters  generally  vary  in  range  from  o  to  15  amperes 
to  o  to  30  amperes  with  I  ampere  scale  divisions,  and  the  voltmeters  from 
o  to  3  volts  to  o  to  10  volts.  A  volt-ammeter  of  this  class  may  have  ranges 
of  o  to  20  amperes  and  o  to  5  volts. 

CONNECTIONS  OF  INSTRUMENTS. 

The  ammeters  require  to  be  connected  to  the  circuit  by  a  conductor 
of  good  electrical  conductivity,  as  a  considerable  current  is  to  pass,  and 
these  instruments  are  generally  provided  with  a  permanently  attached 
flexible,  insulated  cord  of  high  carrying  capacity  terminating  in  a  metallic 
connection  pin  which  is  touched  to  one  pole  of  the  cell  or  circuit  which 
is  to  be  tested.  The  other  terminal  of  the  instrument  is  frequently  a 
metal  pin  or  spur  which  protrudes  from  the  case  and  to  which  one  end 
of  the  ammeter  coil  is  connected,  its  other  end  going  to  the  flexible 
conductor.  When  the  tip  of  the  flexible  cord  and  the  spur  on  the  instru- 
ment case  are  in  simultaneous  contact  with  the  two  poles  qi  the  battery 
cell  or  circuit,  a  reading  in  amperes  should  be  obtained. 

As  the  pocket  voltmeter  passes  so  slight  a  current,  no  special  precau- 
tions need  be  taken  to  provide  it  with  leads  of  high  conductivity,  and  it 
is  usually  fitted  only  with  screw  binding  posts  for  the  reception  of 
ordinary  wires. 

The  volt-ammeter  usually  carries  a  flexible,  highly  conducting  cord 
with  metal  tip  terminal  and  the  case  bears  two  spurs  which  correspond 
respectively  to  the  amperage  and  voltage  coils;  or  it  may  be  provided 
with  two  flexible  cords  normally  connecting  the  voltage  coil  and  a  push 
button  which  gives  connection  to  the  ampere  coil.  A  single  scale  with 
two  sets  of  graduations,  corresponding  to  volts  and  amperes,  is  employed 
upon  this  instrument.  These  instruments,  if  they  are  to  give  reliable 
service,  must  be  carefully  handled  and  not  placed  loosely  in  the  tool  box 
to  be  battered  by  wrenches  and  other  heavy  objects. 
AMMETER  BEST  FOR  DRY  BATTERY. 

Of  the  two  instruments — the  voltmeter  and  the  ammeter — the  latter 
is  by  far  the  more  useful,  and  if  only  one  is  bought,  the  ammeter  should 
be  the  one  selected.  The  volt-ammeter,  of  course,  makes  a  very  useful 
combination,  but  the  voltmeter  alone  is  not  of  very  great  service  to  the 
user  of  primary  batteries. 

TESTING  CELLS  AT  PURCHASE. 

One  of  the  first  uses  to  which  the  automobilist  is  likely  to  put  his 
instrument  is  in  the  selection  of  dry  cells  from  the  electrical  supply 
dealer.  The  ammeter  will  assist  him  in  selecting  cells  from  the  dealer's 

66 


stock  which  are  in  good  condition ;  i.  e.,  not  deteriorated  by  age,  weak- 
ened by  accidental  short  circuiting  or  previous  use,  or  rendered  useless 
by  careless  handling.  A  2j/£  inch  by  6  inch  dry  cell  ought  to  show 
about  15  or  20  amperes  on  the  ammeter  during  a  momentary  test.  This 
figure  is  by  no  means  exact,  as  cells  of  this  size  are  intentionally  made 
to  have  different  resistances  for  use  under  different  circumstances,  but 
a  cell  of  this  size  which  shows  less  than  12  amperes  should  hardly  be 
accepted  for  automobile  work.  The  larger  size  of  dry  cell  (324x8  inches) 
should  give  an  amperage  in  the  neighborhood  of  25.  A  test  of  this  sort 
is  easily  made.  A  number  of  cells  may  be  placed  upon  the  counter,  the 
ammeter  held  in  one  hand  and  the  tip  of  the  flexible  cord  in  the  other, 
and  the  cord  tip  and  the  spur  or  projecting  pin  of  the  instrument  simul- 
taneously brought  into  firm  contact  with  bright  portions  of  the  zinc  and 
carbon  connections  of  each  cell,  and  the  instrument  read  just  as  soon 
as  the  needle  is  substantially  at  rest.  The  cells  which  show  the  highest 
reading  will  naturally  be  chosen.  If  a  voltmeter  test  be  made  of  a 
number  of  cells  taken  at  random,  a  good  instrument  will  show  each  of 
them  to  have  an  electrical  pressure  of  very  nearly  1.5  volts,  and  this 
figure  is  very  little  reduced,  although  the  cell  may  be  nearly  exhausted, 
when  it  is  not  likely  to  test  less  than  1.2  volts.  A  cell  may,  under  certain 
conditions,  test  1.5  volts  and  still  be  incapable  of  furnishing  a  current 
of  any  practical  volume,  and  it  is  thus  evident  that  a  voltmeter  test  is 
no  safe  criterion  to  apply  to  the  acceptance  or  rejection  of  dry  cells. 
What  the  automobilist  most  wishes  to  be  assured  of  is  whether  a  cell 
will  actually  deliver  a  good  volume  of  current,  and  of  this  an  ammeter 
test  assures  him;  but  a  cell  which  might  test  1.5  volts  by  the  voltmeter 
might  contain  within  it  a  bad  connection  of  the  binding  post  to  the 
zinc  or  carbon,  or  perchance  the  chemicals  in  the  cell  might  have  nearly 
dried  out,  so  as  to  offer  a  great  or  nearly  total  obstruction  to  the  flow 
of  current.  In  either  case  the  usefulness  of  the  cell  would  be  prac- 
tically nil,  notwithstanding  the  electrical  pressure  which  actually  existed 
within  it. 

VOLTMETER  FOR  STORAGE  BATTERIES. 

The  case  of  the  automobile  user  who  employs  storage  cells  for  igni- 
tion is  entirely  different.  The  ammeter  is  of  practically  no  value  to 
him,  as  a  storage  cell  will  deliver  a  larger  current  than  the  instrument 
will  measure,  and  these  pocket  instruments  should  not  be  connected  to 
accumulators,  for  more  than  one  reason.  The  condition  of  a  storage 
cell  is  determined  by  use  of  the  voltmeter.  When  a  cell  has  been  used 
until  its  voltage  is  reduced  to  about  1.7  volts,  it  should  be  recharged 
until  it  shows  about  2.3  volts  or  slightly  over.  If  these  figures  are  not 
found  correct  for  some  particular  type  of  accumulator,  the  user  will 
soon  determine  by  experience  what  are  the  correct  ones  in  his  particular 
case. 

TESTS  OF  INDIVIDUAL  CELLS. 

Another  use  which  may  be  made  of  the  ammeter  is  in  the  occasional 
testing  of  the  individual  cells  after  they  are  in  service  in  the  battery 
of  the  machine.  This  test  is  made  exactly  as  is  the  test  of  separate 
cells  at  the  time  they  are  bought.  After  considerable  use  the  cells  will 
be  found  to  show  a  materially  lessened  amperage  under  test,  and  the 

67 


question  arises  at  what  point  of  the  progressive  diminution  of  current 
output  the  cell  should  be  discarded.  This  will  depend  somewhat  upon 
the  current  which  the  coil  requires  for  its  successful  operation  and  upon 
the  condition  of  the  reserve  battery,  which  must  be  relied  upon  in  the 
event  of  the  failure  of  the  one  under  consideration. 

If  the  spare  battery  is  in  first-rate  condition  one  may  be  justified  in 
running  the  other  battery  nearer  to  the  point  of  exhaustion  than  under 
other  circumstances.  In  a  battery  which  is  to  be  kept  in  thoroughly 
reliable  condition,  one  may  perhaps  not  be  far  wrong  in  discarding  a  cell 
when  its  amperage  has  fallen  to  about  5  amperes,  although  this  figure 
is  by  no  means  absolute.  No  doubt  cells  exhausted  to  this  point  are 
capable  of  some  more  service,  especially  if  they  are  used  in  parallel 
groups,  as  then  they  are  called  upon  to  deliver  only  one-half  of  the  cur- 
rent which  would  be  demanded  when  used  in  a  single  series. 
PECULIARITIES  OF  DRY  CELLS. 

Sometimes,  although  a  cell  which  has  been  inactive  may  show  a  good 
amperage  when  tested,  after  it  has  been  used  for  a  short  time  the  cur- 
rent will  be  found  to  have  diminished  to  a  very  small  volume.  A  cell 
that  is  in  this  condition  is  very  untrustworthy  for  any  sort  of  severe 
service.  Some  idea  as  to  whether  the  battery  on  a  car  is  subject  to 
excessive  polarization  may  be  obtained  by  taking  an  ampere  reading 
from  each  cell  both  before  and  after  a  trip  of  considerable  length.  Some 
cells  will  very  likely  be  found  weaker  than  others  upon  the  final  test, 
and  if  any  are  to  be  discarded  these  should  be  the  ones. 
CURRENT  CONSUMPTION  OF  COILS. 

Just  how  low  the  current  should  be  allowed  to  run  in  the  primary 
circuit  of  the  coil  depends  too  much  on  circumstances  to  make  a  generally 
applicable  answer  possible.  Coil  makers,  however,  generally  specify  the 
currents  at  which  their  coils  give  best  service.  The  volume  of  this  cur- 
rent is  readily  determined  by  means  of  a  low  reading  ammeter,  as 
follows :  Place  the  engine  upon  the  "centre,"  so  that  the  timer  closes  the 
circuit,  and  connect  the  ammeter  in  circuit  by  detaching  the  wire  at  the 
battery  and  connecting  it  to  one  of  the  ammeter  terminals  and  the  other 
ammeter  terminal  to  the  battery. 

Special  ammeter  and  voltmeter  combinations  are  now  made,  adapted 
for  permanent  mounting  upon  the  dashboard.  These  instruments  may 
be  permanently  connected  in  circuit  or  cut  in  and  out  at  will  and  are 
applicable  to  storage  battery  or  dry  cell  equipments.  They  permit  of  a 
close  watch  being  kept  upon  the  condition  of  the  batteries  and  are  useful 
in  locating  a  variety  of  ignition  derangements. 
IGNITION  CONNECTIONS. 

Fig.  50  illustrates  the  familiar  form  of  multiple  vibrator  coil  igni- 
tion, each  coil  having  its  own  vibrator,  the  system  depending  for  its 
action  upon  the  electrical  make  and  break  principle  instead  of  the 
mechanical. 

The  contact  device  or  timer  consists  of  a  cylindrical  shell  of  insulating 
material  A  carried  by  a  rotatable  sleeve  on  the  2  to  i  shaft.  On  the 
inside  of  this  shell  are  regularly  disposed  the  contact  segments  Di  Da  D« 
and  D2,  and  fixed  to  and  electrically  connected  to  the  shaft  is  the  moving 

68 


brush  M,  which  is  adapted  to  make  rubbing  contact  successively  with  the 
fixed  segments. 

The  electrical  connections  in  this  system  are  as  follows: 
If  the  brush  is  imagined  to  have  just  rotated  into  contact  with  seg- 
ment Di  the  circuit  is  through  wire  d  to  contact  screw  of  the  vibrator 
of  coil  d,  thence  into  the  vibrator  spring  and  into  one  end  of  the 
primary  winding  of  the  coil,  out  at  the  other  end  thereof  to  the  com- 
mon wire  H,  through  the  switch  and  through  one  or  the  other  of  the 
two  battery  sets  to  the  engine  frame,  thence  through  the  2  to  i  shaft 
and  through  the  timer  brush  to  the  starting  point,  the  induced  secondary 
discharge  giving  rise  to  a  spark  at  plug  Pi,  as  explained  in  the  article 
on  the  vibrator  spark  coil.  When  the  contact  is  made  between  the  brush 
and  segments  Ds  D4  and  Da  respectively,  coils  C»  Q  and  C*  respectively 
act  in  the  manner  just  described,  producing  successions  of  sparks  in 


FIG.  50.— FOUR  CYLINDER  IGNITION  DIAGRAM  WITH  FOUR  VIBRATOR  COILS. 

plugs  Ps  P4  and  P2.  The  rapidity  and  power  of  the  sparks  produced 
by  the  several  coils  largely  depend  upon  the  adjustment  of  their  re- 
spective vibrators.  If  a  vibrator  is  adjusted  too  lightly  it  may  break 
the  circuit  before  the  coil  is  charged  adequately  to  produce  a  spark  of 
full  power,  and  if  too  stiffly  adjusted  it  may  hold  contact  until  the  coil 
has  been  charged  unnecessarily  long  and  waste  battery  power,  although 
producing  a  good  spark.  These  differences  in  vibrator  adjustment  may 
cause  considerable  differences  in  the  power  produced  in  the  several 
cylinders  and  lead  to  a  generally  unsatisfactory  operation  of  the  engine. 
In  order  to  obviate  this  lack  of  uniformity  between  the  sparks  in 
the  different  cylinders,  and  at  the  same  time  to  save  some  outlay  in 
coils  and  perhaps  slightly  reduce  the  necessary  wiring,  the  single  coil 
distributor  system,  as  diagrammatically  illustrated  in  Fig.  51,  is  employed. 

69 


The  distributor  is  merely  a  device  designed  to  direct  the  discharge 
of  the  single  coil  to  the  spark  plug  of  each  cylinder  in  rotation. 

At  A  is  shown  a  timer  of  the  brush  and  segment  type  driven  by  or 
from  the  2  to  I  shaft.  It  is  provided  with  four  equally  spaced  contact 
segments  Di  D3  D*  and  D2,  which  instead  of  being  wired  to  separate 
coils  are  all  electrically  connected  together  by  means  of  a  metal  ring 
which  is  connected  to  one  primary  terminal  of  the  single  vibrator  coil. 
Also  mounted  upon  and  driven  by  the  2  to  i  shaft  and  frequently  made 
intergral  with  the  timer  is  the  distributor  H.  To  secure  clearness  in 
the  diagram  the  timer  and  distributor  are  shown  separately.  The  dis- 
tributor shown  consists  of  an  insulating  shell  carrying,  near  its  periph- 
ery, four  equidistant  metallic  segments  of  considerable  length,  Bi  Bj 
B«  and  B2.  Within  this  is  a  continuous  metallic  ring  J.  The  rotating 


FIG.    51. — FOUR    CYLINDER    IGNITION    DIAGRAM    WITH    SINGLE    VIBRATOR 
COIL  AND   HIGH   TENSION   DISTRIBUTOR. 


arm  K  is  insulated  from  the  2  to  i  shaft  and  carries  at  its  outer  end 
a  brush,  which  is  arranged  to  bear  upon  both  the  segments  and  the 
ring  J  or  to  pass  in  very  close  proximity  thereto.  Segments  Bj  B3  B4 
and  B2  are  respectively  connected  by  the  wires  Ni  Ns  N*  and  N2  to  the 
plugs  Pi  Ps  Pt  and  P2.  One  of  the  secondary  terminals  of  the  coil  is 
connected  to  ring  J  and  the  other  to  the  engine  frame  or  "ground." 
If  the  brushes  of  the  timer  and  distributor  are  imagined  to  be  in  the 
positions  shown,  the  path  of  the  primary  current  will  be  as  follows : 
From  segment  Da  through  the  common  ring  along  wire  M  to  one  pri- 
mary terminal  of  the  coil  box,  through  the  vibrator  contact  screw  and 
vibrator  spring,  through  the  primary  winding,  out  at  the  other  primary 

70 


terminal  of  the  coil,  through  the  switch  S,  through  one  or  the  other  of 
batteries  E  and  F,  into  the  engine  frame,  through  the  secondary  shaft 
and  the  timer  brush  to  the  starting  point.  The  course  of  the  secondary 
discharge  will  be  as  follows:  From  secondary  coil  terminal  R,  through 
wire  L  to  the  common  ring  J  of  the  distributor,  through  the  brush 
carried  by  the  revolving  insulated  arm  to  segment  B3,  out  through  wire 
Ns  to  the  insulated  terminal  of  plug  Ps,  through  the  air  gap  of  the  plug 
to  the  engine  frame,  up  through  wire  T  from  "ground"  to  the  other 
secondary  coil  terminal  and  thence  through  the  secondary  winding  to 
the  starting  point. 

When  the  brush  of  the  timer  advances  into  contact  with  segment  D4 
and  that  of  the  distributor  to  segment  B4  the  actions  in  the  primary  are 
exactly  as  before,  but  the  secondary  discharge  is  now  directed  from  seg- 
ment B4,  through  wire  N4  to  plug  P«  instead  of  to  plug  Pa  as  before. 
When  the  two  brush  arms  touch  segment  D2  and  B2  the  discharge  finds 
a  path  to  plug  P2,  and  when  they  make  contact  with  Di  and  Bi  the  plug 
Pi  receives  the  discharge.  Thus  all  four  cylinders  are  sparked  in  rota- 
tion from  the  single  coil,  and  as  the  vibrator  of  this  coil  determines 
the  discharge  in  all  four  cylinders,  their  ignition  is  always  uniform  in 
point  of  time  and  power.  This  system  of  ignition  is  often  spoken  of  as 
"synchronized."  The  ignition  time  may  be  changed  by  rotating  the 
timer  and  distributor  around  the  shaft,  the  length  of  the  distributor 
segments  being  sufficient  to  allow  of  this  and  still  preserve  contact  with 
the  brush  even  at  the  extremes  of  spark  advance  and  retardation. 

Perhaps  the  most  serious  objection  to  this  system  lies  in  the  fact 
that  the  high  tension  sparking  current  is  brought  into  close  proximity 
to  "ground"  in  the  distributor,  and  if  the  insulation  becomes  impaired  it 
may  escape  there  or  at  times  jump  to  the  wrong  segment  -and  spark 
the  wrong  cylinder;  but  there  is  very  little  danger  of  this  if  the  apparatus 
is  well  made.  Of  course,  in  any  single  vibrator  system  there  is  almost 
constant  work  demanded  of  this  vibrator,  and  other  things  being  equal  it 
naturally  wears  several  times  as  fast  as  a  vibrator  sparking  but  one 
cylinder.  In  all  jump  spark  systems  of  ignition  in  which  the  circuit  is 
interrupted  between  platinum  contacts  the  condenser  plays  a  very  essen- 
tial role  in  reducing  the  burning  of  these  contacts,  although  its  chief 
office  is  in  increasing  the  abruptness  with  which  the  current  is  interrupted 
and  hence  augmenting  the  discharge  pressure.  A  condenser  may  be 
connected  as  a  shunt  to  the  interrupter  points,  in  which  case  it  is  really 
in  series  with  the  primary  winding,  or  it  may  be  connected  directly  in 
shunt  with  the  primary  coil  winding.  In  either  case  a  properly  propor- 
tioned condenser  will  do  the  work  effectively. 

Fig.  52  is  a  diagrammatic  representation  of  a  master  vibrator  system. 
Here  A  is  a  timer  of  the  segment  and  brush  type,  the  segments  Di  Ds  D4 
and  D2  being  connected  by  the  wires  Gi  Gs  G4  and  G2,  respectively,  to 
one  terminal  of  the  four  plain  coils  (without  vibrators),  Ci  Ca  C4  and 
C2.  The  common  wire  H  is  connected  to  the  other  terminals  of  the 
coils  and  to  the  contact  screw  of  the  master  vibrator  V,  which  latter 
is  thus  included  in  the  common  primary  circuit  of  all  the  coils.  As- 
suming the  brush  M  of  the  timer  to  be  in  contact  with  segment  Di,  the 
circuit  is  closed  through  wire  Gi,  the  primary  of  coil  Ci,  the  vibrator 

71 


contacts  R  and  the  vibrator  magnet  N,  the  switch  S,  and,  either  through 
battery  F  or  E,  through  the  ground  and  back  to  the  timer  brush.  As 
the  master  vibrator  breaks  the  circuit  the  sparking  current  will  pass 
from  the  secondary  of  coil  d  to  plug  Pi  and  back  through  ground  and 
common  secondary  wire  K  to  the  other  pole  of  the  secondary. 

When  brush  M  has  moved  onto  segment  D3  coil  C8  is  energized, 
the  circuit  still  being  through  the  master  vibrator,  and  a  spark  is 
produced  at  plug  Ps.  In  the  same  manner  plugs  P*  and  P2  are  successively 
sparked. 

The  master  vibrator  system  furnishes  synchronized  ignition,  since 
all  coils  are  controlled  from  the  same  vibrator  in  rotation,  and  it  has 
this  advantage  over  the  distributor  system,  that  high  tension  current 
is  not  carried  by  any  moving  part  in  close  proximity  to  ground.  How- 


FlG. 


ever,  it  requires  a  multiplicity  of  coils,   which   adds  to  the  expense  of 
installation. 

HIGH  TENSION   MAGNETO   CONNECTIONS. 

Fig.  S3  shows  a  typical  arrangement  of  a  two  impulse,  gear  driven 
magneto  connected  to  spark  four  cylinders. 

At  the  lower  left  hand  corner  of  the  figure  may  be  seen  the  insulated 
connection  P  and  bVush,  which  serve  to  collect  current  from  the  insulated 
end  of  the  winding  of  the  shuttle  formed  armature.  The  other  end 
of  the  armature  winding  is  grounded  to  the  magneto  frame.  In  the 
diagrammatic  view  of  the  magneto  may  be  seen  the  make  and  break 
device,  in  which  J  is  the  insulated  stationary,  platinum  pointed  contact 
screw.  Q  is  the  movable  platinum  pointed  extremity  of  a  bell  crank 
lever,  so  pivoted  that  its  contact  point  can  be  brought  into  contact  with 

72 


J  by  means  of  a  double  cam  on  the  magneto  shaft.  A  spring  serves 
to  suddenly  part  these  contacts  when  the  cam  has  passed.  A  wire  P 
leads  from  P  (the  live  end  of  the  armature  winding)  to  one  primary 
terminal  of  the  plain  coil  and  from  the  other  end  of  the  primary  coil 
to  contact  screw  J.  A  condenser  (shown  by  the  traditional  "gridiron" 
symbol)  is  connected  in  shunt  to  the  make  and  break.  One  end  of  the 
coil  secondary  is  grounded  by  wire  at  G  and  the  other  goes  to  the  in- 
sulated rotating  brush  of  the  distributor  N.  Segments  Ai  As  At  At 
are  connected  to  the  spark  plugs  Pi  Pa  P*  and  Pt  of  the  respective 
cylinders,  and  contact  brush  N  is  arranged  to  pass  in  successive  close 
proximity  to  them,  but  not  to  quite  touch  them,. thus  providing  a  slight 
auxiliary  air  gap  in  the  path  of  the  secondary  discharge. 

The  path  of  the  primary  current  is  as  follows:     From  the  live  end 
of  the  magneto  armature,  through  an  insulated  ring  and  the  brush  and 


FIG.  53. — Low-HiGH   TENSION  MAGNETO  CONNECTIONS. 


insulated  connection  through'  wire  P,  through  the  coil  primary,  by  wire 
D  to  insulated  contact  point  J,  into  contact  point  Q  and  to  ground 
through  the  bell  crank,  lever  and  shaft,  to  which  the  other  end  of  the 
armature  wire  is  connected. 

The  path  of  the  secondary  current  is  from  one  end  of  the  secondary 
winding,  by  wire  E  to  the  rotating  brush  of  the  distributor  N  and  thence 
to  the  particular  stationary  sector  A,  which  happens  to  be  in  position, 
thence  by  its  appropriate  wire  to  and  through  its  spark  plug  to  ground, 
out  by  ground  wire  G  to  and  through  the  secondary  winding  to  the 
starting  point.  In  order  to  change  the  timing  of  the  spark,  the  periods 
when  the  impulses  in  the  magneto  are  produced  are  changed  relatively 
to  the  engine  crank  shaft  position.  This  is  done  by  giving  the  arma- 
ture of  the  magneto  a  range  of  angular  movement  with  respect  to  the 

73 


small    gear    shown    in    the    figure.      A    spiral    slot    arrangement    accom- 
plishes this. 

The  speed  of  the  magneto,  of  course,  varies  directly  with  the  engine 
speed  and  the  intensity  of  the  electrical  impulses  produced  increases 
somewhat  with  the  speed,  but,  on  account  of  certain  electrical  considera- 
tions, it  does  not  increase  to  a  dangerous  extent.  The  increase  is  rather 
advantageous  than  otherwise,  as  the  faster  the  engine  is  running  the 
hotter  is  the  spark  and  the  quicker  the  ignition,  which  action,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  precludes  the  necessity  of  any  special  advance  of  spark 
position. 

BATTERY  AUXILIARY  OR  DUAL  SYSTEM. 

Although  most  magnetos  are  capable  of  generating  a  current  ade- 
quate for  ignition  purposes  at  the  speed  they  turn  when  the  engine  is 
cranked,  it  is  oftentimes  convenient  to  carry  a  battery  upon  the  car  for 


FIG.  54.— LOW-HIGH  TENSION  MAGNETO  CONNECTIONS  WITH  BATTERY 
AUXILIARY. 


use  at  starting  and  in  case  the  magneto  should  become  deranged.  The 
battery  may  be  so  connected  that  the  make  and  break  distributor  and 
coil  ordinarily  used  with  the  magneto  may  be  used  with  the  battery 
also,  a  three-way  switch  serving  to  change  from  one  source  of  current 
to^the  other.  Fig.  54  shows  this  arrangement.  When  the  switch  is  on 
point  S  the  primary  circuit  is  as  just  previously  traced,  but  when  the 
switch  is  on  point  T  the  live  end  of  the  magneto  armature  winding  is 
opened  at  the  switch  and  the  circuit  is  from  one  pole  of  the  battery  V 
to  switch  point  T  into  the  coil  primary,  from  the  primary  winding 
through  the  make  and  break  contacts  J  and  Q  of  the  magneto  to  "ground" ; 
thence  along  the  ground  wire  G  to  the  other  side  of  the  battery.  The 
secondary  connections  are  unchanged. 

74 


As  the  operation  of  the  system  upon  battery  current  is  thus  de- 
pendent upon  the  integrity  of  the  magneto  make  and  break  and  dis- 
tributor, as  well  as  upon  their  driving  arrangements,  the  use  of  a  bat- 
tery in  this  manner  is  really  of  very  little  advantage  so  far  as  securing 
reliability  of  ignition  is  concerned. 

In  the   case   of   a   high   tension   magneto   a   separate   battery   coil   is 
employed  and  usually  a  separate  make  and  break  device  carried  upon  the 
magneto  shaft  acts  in  conjunction  with  this  and  a  battery.     The  regular 
distributor  of  the  magneto  also  serves  to  distribute  the  battery  current. 
ORDER  OF  FIRING  OF  CYLINDERS. 

In  the  diagrams  reproduced  under  ignition  connections  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  the  timing  device  in  each  case  is  arranged  to  send  a  spark 
to  the  four  plugs  of  the  engine  in  a  definite  order.  Numbering  the 
cylinders  i,  2,  3,  4,  beginning  at  the  radiator,  the  order  of  firing  here 
shown  is  I,  3,  4,  2.  The  object  of  firing  first  the  cylinder  next  the 
radiator,  then  the  third  from  the  radiator,  then  the  fourth  from  the 
radiator  (or  rear  cylinder)  and  then  the  second  cylinder  from  the  front, 
is  to  cause  the  motor  to  operate  with  a  minimum  of  vibration,  and  hence 
with  the  least  discomfort  to  the  passengers. 

Another  common  order  of  firing  is  i,  2,  4,  3,  and  there  is  very  little 
to  choose  between  this  order  and  the  one  adopted  in  these  diagrams, 
but  they  are  both  greatly  superior  to  the  order  i,  2,  3,  4. 

In  the  case  of  six  cylinder  motors  various  firing  orders  are  adopted, 
among  which  are  I,  2,  3,  6,  5,  4;  i,  5,  4,  6,  2,  3  and  i,  2,  4,  6,  5,  3. 
DOUBLE  SYSTEMS. 

Complete  double  systems  of  ignition  entirely  independent  one  of  the 
other  are  sometimes  used  where  a  very  high  degree  of  reliability  is 
desirable.  The  high  tension  magneto  system  as  described  may  be  installed 
with  its  plugs  set  into  the  motor  cylinders  over  the  inlet  valves,  and  a 
battery  energized  system,  with  separate  timer,  distributor,  coil  and  wir- 
ing, may  be  put  in,  the  plugs  of  which  may  be  introduced  over  the 
exhaust  valves.  Or  a  multiple  coil  battery  energized  system  and  a  high 
tension  magneto  system  may  be  supplied,  wired  separately.  Or  a  special 
battery  system  such  as  the  Atwater  Kent  may  be  installed,  with  a 
magneto.  Indeed  almost  any  combination  of  two  systems  may  be  effected. 


The    Contact    Spark    System. 

There  is  a  rather  widespread  belief  that  the  contact  spark  system  which 
employs  the  mechanical  make  and  break  of  a  primary  inductive  circuit 
within  the  cylinder  to  be  ignited  gives  more  effective  ignition  than  does 
the  jump  spark  system  as  usually  installed,  especially  when  weak  or 
foul  charges  are  to  be  ignited.  The  contact  spark  system  possesses 
electrical  simplicity  and  a  considerable  degree  of  mechanical  complica- 
tion, while  the  jump  spark  system  is  electrically  much  more  complex  but 
simple  mechanically,  and  it  is  as  often  individual  taste  as  questions  of 
abstract  superiority  which  leads  to  the  adoption  of  one  or  the  other 
system. 

In  Fig.  55  is  illustrated  a  typical  contact  spark  outfit.    M  is  a  magneto 

75 


generator,  giving  a  low  tension  current  and  which  may  be  assumed  to  be 
of  the  two  impulse  per  revolution  type,  which  involves  its  being  geared 
to  run  at  the  speed  of  the  engine  shaft,  so  that  there  will  be  four  impulses 
during  every  two  revolutions  or  one  cycle  of  the  four  cylinder  engine  to 
which  it  is  represented  to  be  connected.  One  end  of  the  armature  wind- 
ing of  the  magneto  is  grounded  and  the  other  is  brought  out  to  the 
insulated  terminal  A.  A  wire  leads  from  A  to  point  S  of  the  three- 
way  switch  and  from  the  common  point  of  the  switch  a  wire  or  metal  rod 
C  leads  along  in  proximity  to  the  cylinder  heads.  From  this  main  wire 
branches  are  taken  to  the  igniter  of  each  cylinder  through  individual 
knife  switches.  The  combustion  chambers  of  the  cylinders  and  the 
igniters  themselves  are  shown  in  this  diagram,  parts  located  within  the 
cylinders  being  represented  by  dotted  lines.  Into  the  wall  of  each  cylin- 
der is  screwed  a  plug  B,  carrying  an  internal  refractory  contact  point, 
bushed  with  non-conducting  material,  which  insulates  it  from  the  cylin- 
der wall.  This  fixed  contact  is  connected  directly  to  the  wire  C.  D  is  a 
three-armed  lever,  of  which  the  dotted  vertical  portion  is  within  the 
cylinder  and  the  two  horizontal  arms  outside,  the  two  parts  being  con- 
nected by  a  short  shaft  supported  by  and  rotatable  ,in  a  ground  bearing  in 
the  cylinder  wall.  The  dotted  portion  bears,  near  its  upper  end,  a  contact 
point  adapted  to  touch  the  contact  point  of  the  insulated  electrode  B. 
E  is  a  spring  tending  to  hold  the  movable  electrode  D  in  contact  with 
the  fixed  electrode  B.  F  is  a  vertically  guided  reciprocating  rod  bearing 
a  head  which,  when  moved  downwardly,  makes  mechanical  contact  with 
one  of  the  horizontal  arms  of  D  and  acts  against  the  spring  E  to  break 
contact  between  electrodes  D  and  B.  The  lower  extremity  of  F  is  in 
contact  with  a  cam  G  carried  by  the  2  to  i  shaft  of  the  engine,  the  contour 
of  which  is  such  as  to  give  F  a  vertically  reciprocating  motion.  A  spiral 
spring  H,  surrounding  F  and  acting  against  a  fixed  stop,  tends  to  keep 
the  rod  in  contact  with  its  cam.  A  battery  J  has  one  of  its  terminals 
grounded  upon  the  magneto  frame  and  its  other  terminal  connected 
through  the  self  induction  coil  K  to  point  T  of  the  switch. 

The  action  of  this  ignition  arrangement  is  as  follows :  The  magneto 
is  so  geared  that  each  one  of  its  current  impulses  corresponds  approxi- 
mately with  the  moment  at  which  some  one  of  the  rods  F  is  raised  to 
the  limit  of  its  upward  motion  by  its  cam.  Now  suppose  the  switch  arm 
is  upon  point  S,  and  imagine  the  igniter  shown  next  the  magneto  to  be  in 
the  condition  represented,  with  its  rod  F  at  the  upward  limit  of  its  motion. 
Its  spring  E  will  cause  contact  to  take  place  within  the  cylinder  between 
D  and  B,  and  current  will  flow  from  the  live  terminal  of  the  magneto 
A  through  the  switch  to  wire  C,  thence  through  the  individual  switch  to 
insulated  electrode  B,  thence  to  D  and  into  the  engine  frame;  out  of 
the  frame  of  the  magneto  and  through  its  armature  winding  to  the  starting 
point.  The  current  passing  will  fully  saturate  the  magneto  armature  mag- 
netically. Meanwhile  the  contact  points  of  the  other  three  igniters  are 
held  out  of  contact  by  the  actions  of  the  heads  of  their  rods  F  bearing 
down  upon  the  lever  arms  of  the  parts  D  under  the  influence  of  the 
springs  H,  these  rods  F  being  at  this  time  upon  the  low  portions  of  their 
cams.  Returning  to  the  particular  igniter  under  consideration,  an  instant 
later  the  raised  portions  of  its  cam  will  have  passed  from  under  the  rod 

77 


F  and  the  spring  H  will  send  the  rod  downward.  The  head  of  the  rod, 
which  has  been  raised  by  the  cam  somewhat  above  the  arm  of  D,  will, 
in  its  descent,  strike  D  a  blow  and  cause  a. very  sudden  break  of  the  con- 
tact between  D  and  B.  When  this  occurs  the  current  will  be  interrupted 
and  the  magneto  armature  will  discharge  through  the  gap  between  the 
contacts  in  the  form  of  an  "extra  current"  spark  or  arc.  The  second 
igniter  from  the  magneto  is  shown  just  after  breaking.  The  four  igniters 
shown  successively  go  through  the  actions  just  described  in  the  order 
i,  3,  4,  2. 

In  order  to  regulate  the  spark  time  the  adjustable  guides  L  are  pro- 
vided, which  serve  to  vary  the  horizontal  position  of  the  lower  ends  of 
the  rods  F  and  thus  vary  the  instant  at  which  their  ends  reach  the  dis- 
continuity of  their  cams.  In  practice  other  arrangements  are  commonly 
made  use  of  to  vary  the  spark  advance.  One  common  expedient  is  to 
make  the  cams  rather  long  and  of  a  helical  form,  so  that  the  projecting 
face  is  located  at  a  varying  angular  position  upon  the  shaft  at  different 
points  in  the  cam's  length.  The  cam  shaft  is  made  so  as  to  be  slidable  in 
the  direction  of  its  length,  thus  bringing  various  portions  of  the  helical 
cams  under  the  igniter  rods  at  will  and  causing  their  action  to  take  place 
at  varying  points  in  the  stroke  of  the  engine. 

In  starting  the  engine  battery  J  may  be  used  as  the  current  source  by 
placing  the  switch  arm  on  point  T,  when  the  magneto  circuit  is  opened 
and  the  circuit  is  from  ground  through  the  battery  and  coil  K  to  the 
fixed  igniter  points  B.  It  is  the  discharge  of  the  single  wound  coil  K 
which  gives  the  spark  in  this  case. 

The  individual  switches  shown  in  this  diagram  controlling  each 
igniter  are  useful  for  testing  purposes.  Mechanical  make  and  break 
devices  for  contact  spark  purposes  are  of  consider- 
able variety  in  point  of  details,  but  they  all  act  in 
substantially  the 
same  way. 

Figs.  56  and  57 
illustrate  typical  ex- 
amples  of  such  ig- 
niters. 

MAGNETO    SPARK 
PLUG  SYSTEM. 


FIG.  56.  —  TYPICAL 
MAKE  AND  BREAK 
MECHANISM  (LO- 
COMOBILE). 


In  order  to  se- 
cure the  large  hot 
spark  characteristic 
of  the  contact  sys- 
tems, and  at  the 
same  time  to  do 
away  with  its  me- 
chanical arrange- 
ments, a  number  of  \^/  THE  HORSELES 
electrically  actuated  Fu;.  57.— SKETCH  OF  A  Low  TEN 
make  and  break  SION  SPARK  PLUG. 


contact  spark  systems  have  been  proposed  and  used  to  a  moderate  extent. 
Fig.  58  shows  in  diagrammatic  form  the  principle  of  one  such  arrange- 
ment. 

In  this  arrangement  A  is  the  low  tension  armature  of  a  two  impulse 
per  revolution,  gear  driven  magneto,  rotating  at  crank  shaft  speed. 
B  is  the  make  and  break  device,  the  contacts  of  which  act  to  short  circuit 
the  armature  winding  except  at  two  equally  spaced  periods  per  revolu- 
tion corresponding  to  the  ignition  periods  of  the  two  cylinders  firing 
during  that  revolution.  D  is  a  low  tension  distributor  driven  at  one 
half  the  armature  speed  and  provided  with  an  arm  E,  which  is  always 
in  contact  with  one  or  the  other  of  four  equally  spaced  segments  that 
are  respectively  in  electrical  connection  with  the  plugs  i,  2,  3,  4.  The 


FIG.  58.— MAGNETO    PLUG    SYSTEM    ( BOSCH). 


plugs  screw  into  the  ordinary  spark  plug  holes,  and  each  contains  a  coil 
of  wire  capable  of  magnetically  attracting  an  armature,  the  movement  of 
which  causes  the  separation  of  a  pair  of  platinum  sparking  points. 

If  the  armature  be  imagined  in  motion,  a  strong  current  will  circulate 
through  its  winding  and  through  the  short  circuiting  points  of  make  and 
break  B.  When  the  proper  time  for  a  spark  approaches,  these  contacts  are 
separated  by  one  face  of  the  two  point  cam  which  controls  them  and 
the  current  from  the  magneto  passes  through  a  brush  and  wire  H  to 
the  arm  E  of  the  distributor,  into  whichever  of  the  segments  the  arm 
happens  to  be  in  contact  with,  through  the  appropriate  plug  wire  into 
the  magnetic  coil  of  the  plug,  through  the  plug  contacts  into  the  body 
of  the  engine  and  back  to  the  grounded  end  of  the  armature  winding. 
An  instant  later  the  attraction  of  the  magnetism  set  up  by  the  coil  in 
the  plug  separates  the  contact  points  and  produces  a  very  intense  spark,  due 
to  the  discharge  of  the  magneto  armature.  Immediately  thereafter  a 
spring  in  the  plug  closes  the  plug  contacts  and  the  same  actions  take 
place  in  connection  with  the  other  segments  of  the  distributor  and  the 
other  plugs. 

At  the  present  time  the  contact  spark  system  is  very  much  less  em- 
ployed than  is  the  jump  spark  system. 

79 


Locating    and    Remedying    Troubles    in    Battery     Ignition 
Systems. 

(ALBERT  L.  CLOUGH.) 

The  chief  difficulty  experienced  in  the  location  of  defects  in  jump  spark 
ignition  systems  arises  from  the  fact  that  derangements  in  different  por- 
tions of  the  circuit  make  themselves  manifest  by  the  same  symptoms — 
usually  a  failure  of  the  primary  current  to  flow,  or  a  cessation  of  the 
igniting  spark.  If  each  possible  derangement  had  its  own  individual 
symptom,  "trouble  hunting"  would  be  comparatively  easy,  but,  as  the 
matter  actually  stands,  there  is  more  or  less  groping  and  experimenting 
to  be  done  in  a  somewhat  haphazard  way,  in  order  to  find  which  one 
of  the  many  possible  causes  of  trouble  is  the  one  that  is  present.  It  is 
impossible  to  define  any  method  of  procedure  in  the  localization  of 
ignition  defects  which  shall  prove  infallible  or  which  is  better  or  quicker 
than  some  other,  but  the  following  routine  is  suggested  as  having  been 
fairly  successful  in  practice. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  CAUSES. 

(A)  Take  the  case  of  a  failure  of  the  primary  current  as  shown 
by  the  lack  of  action  of  the  coil  vibrator  when  the  engine  is  turned  over 
the  sparking  point,  or  the  lack  of  a  spark  at  the  switch  when  the  engine 
is  placed  on  the  ignition  pt>int  and  the  switch  contacts  are  opened  and 
closed.  This  may  be  due  to  any  one  of  three  causes,  (i)  The  battery 
may  have  failed;  (2)  there  may  be  a  break  or  unreliable  contact  some- 
where in  the  primary  circuit,  or  (3)  there  may  be  a  short  circuit  in  the 
primary  which  allows  the  current  to  take  a  short  cut  without  passing 
through  the  coil. 

RESERVE  BATTERIES. 

(i)  Every  car  ought  to  carry  two  distinct  sets  of  batteries,  one  of 
which  should  at  all  times  be  kept  fresh  and  in  perfect  condition.  If  this 
is  the  case,  the  act  of  switching  to  the  reserve  battery  will  demonstrate 
at  once  whether  or  not  the  difficulty  is  one  due  to  weak  battery  power. 
If  ignition  is  immediately  resumed  after  switching  over,  the  trip  can,  of 
course,  be  completed  with  the  good  battery,  but  one  should  not  neglect 
to  replace  the  defective  one  at  the  very  earliest  moment.  In  case,  through 
any  neglect,  neither  battery  is  known  to  be  in  perfect  order,  or  in  the  very 
rare  instance  of  but  one  battery  being  carried,  in  the  absence  of  an 
ammeter,  rough  tests  of  battery  strength  may  thus  be  made:  A  piece  of 
wire  a  couple  of  feet  long  may  be  taken  and  its  ends  momentarily  touched 
to  the  free  zinc  and  carbon  terminals  of  the  battery.  If  the  cells  are  in 
good  condition,  the  flow  of  current  ought  to  be  enough  to  make  a  bright 
spark  sufficient  to  cause  the  end  of  the  wire  to  smoke.  In  case  no  spark 
is  obtained  in  this  way,  or  only  a  very  feeble  one,  the  battery  may  be 
considered  as  imperfectly  contacted  or  weak. 

If  there  is  no  spark  at  all,  it  may  be  that  some  individual  cell  is 
internally  open  circuited,  or  that  the  wire  connecting  some  cell  with  its 
neighbor  has  been  broken  or  makes  a  bad  connection  in  its  binding  posts. 
Wire  sometimes  breaks  and  is  held  from  falling  apart  by  its  covering. 
Such  a  break  may  sometimes  be  located  by  bending  the  wires  in  various 

80 


directions  by  the  hand  and  if  a  particular  point  in  the  wire  is  noticed 
which  seems  especially  flimsy  the  conductor  may  be  broken  there.  It  will 
naturally  occur  to  one  to  tighten  all  binding  posts  and  to  look  especially 
for  any  sign  of  corrosion  around  the  connections,  which,  if  found,  should 
be  scraped  off  and  clean  connections  made.  If  the  battery  still  fails  to 
give  any  current  whatever,  the  engine  should  be  set  on  the  sparking 
position,  and  one  should  take  the  test  wire  previously  alluded  to  and 
search  for  the  break  in  the  circuit,  by  touching  its  ends  simultaneously 
to  the  two  terminals  of  each  cell,  thus  cutting  each  cell  in  turn  out  of 
circuit.  If  the  particular  cell  which  is  thus  being  tested  be  the  offending 
one  there  will  be  a  spark  at  one  or  the  other  end  of  the  test  wire.  By 
simultaneously  touching  the  ends  of  the  test  wire  to  adjacent  terminals 
of  neighboring  cells,  each  connecting  wire  between  cells  may  be  suc- 
cessively cut  out  of  circuit,  and  if  the  break  be  located  in  one  of  these 
a  spark  will  occur  at  the  test  wire  when  it  is  applied. 

AMMETER  TEST. 

In  the  event  of  the  battery's  giving  a  weak  spark  when  tested  as  a 
whole,  it  will  probably  have  to  be  condemned,  but  if  one  has  a  pocket 
ammeter  at  hand  it  may  be  worth  while  to  test  the  condition  of  each  cell 
successively  by  attaching  the  two  terminals  of  the  instrument  to  its 
carbon  and  zinc  terminals  successively.  If  any  one  cell  shows  a  strength 
very  much  below  the  others,  it  may  be  cut  out  of  circuit  with  good 
results.  Should  no  particular  cell  be  found  weaker  than  the  others,  the 
batter)'  will  have  to  be  given  up  as  useless. 

PARALLELING  BATTERIES. 

If  both  batteries  of  the  car  are  found  hopelessly  weak,  as  a  last  resort 
they  may  be  connected  in  parallel,  thus  demanding  only  half  the  usual 
flow  of  current  from  either  one.  Sometimes  one  can  get  home  through 
resorting  to  this  expedient.  As  usually  arranged,  a  wire  leads  from  the 
free  zinc  terminal  of  each  battery  to  one  of  the  two  points  of  the  switch, 
and  the  free  carbon  terminals  of  the  two  sets  are  wired  together,  or  it 
may  be  that  the  polarity  is  just  the  reverse.  In  either  case,  a  wire  con- 
nected to  the  two  battery  terminals  from  which  run  the  wires  to  the  two 
switch  points  will  put  the  two  sets  in  parallel.  Some  cars  have  switches 
which  provide  special  means  for  paralleling  the  two  batteries. 

(2)  A  break  in  the  continuity  of  the  primary  circuit  may  occur  at 
any  one  of  the  following  points:  (a)  at  the  timer;  (&)  at  the  vibrator  (if 
one  be  employed);  (c)  in  the  primary  winding  or  connections;  (d)  in 
the  battery  switch;  (?)  in  the  wiring. 

DEFECTS  IN  TIMERS. 

(a)  Timers  are  usually  of  either  the  roller  contact  type  or  of  the 
commutator  and  brush  type,  and  one  may  test  the  timer  by  throwing  on 
the  battery  switch  and  simultaneously  touching  with  the  two  ends  of  the 
test  wire  the  binding  screw  of  the  timer  and  the  timer  shaft,  or  some 
part  of  the  engine.  This  should  cause  a  spark  at  the  test  wire  and  a 
buzzing  of  the  vibrator  if  the  trouble  is  in  the  timer  contacts.  With  a 
multiple  cylinder  engine,  each  timer  binding  post  may  be  tested  in  this 
manner. 

81 


POOR  CONTACTS. 

When  the  engine  is  cranked  over,  the  timer  contacts  should  be  seen 
to  press  firmly  together  at  the  correct  points,  the  attachment  of  the  wires 
to  their  binding  posts  should  be  demonstrated  to  be  clean  and  firm,  and 
the  timer  must  not  be  loose  enough  on  its  shaft  to  allow  any  possibility 
of  its  motion  breaking  the  connection. 

DIRTY  CONTACT  SURFACES. 

In  the  commutator  and  brush  type  of  timer  a  moving  brush  or  roller 
travels  over  the  internal  surface  of  an  insulating  cylindrical  shell  having 
contact  segments  set  into  its  surface  at  proper  intervals  for  each  cylinder 
to  be  sparked.  These  timers  are  not  very  prone  to  failure,  but  occa- 
sionally the  stationary  contacts  may  become  fouled  with  dirty  oil  or  metal 
dust,  or  worn  down  below  the  surface  of  the  insulation.  In  the  latter 
case  the  insulation  will  have  to  be  turned  or  filed  down  to  make  the 
surface  true.  The  spring  which  forces  the  moving  brush  or  roller  into 
contact  with  the  segments  must  be  of  the  proper  tension  to  secure  positive 
action.  Dependence  upon  pivots  to  carry  the  current  may  properly  give 
rise  to  suspicion.  All  binding  posts  should  be  tried  for  tightness.  A 
timer  which  is  "wobbly"  upon  its  shaft  is  almost  sure  to  give  trouble, 
especially  at  high  speeds,  and  should  be  repaired  so  as  to  run  true. 
COIL  VIBRATORS. 

(&)  The  coil  vibrator  is  rather  a  troublesome  little  piece  of  apparatus. 
To  determine  whether  it  is  at  fault,  carefully  place  the  engine  on  the 
sparking  position,  and  with  the  test  wire  simultaneously  touch  the  sup- 
port of  the  vibrator  and  the  arch  which  carries  the  adjusting  screw.  If 
a  spark  be  obtained,  the  trouble  is  in  the  vibrator  contacts  or  in  their 
adjustment.  The  adjusting  screw  is  easily  removed  and  its  platinum 
smoothed  up.  If  the  vibrator  itself  can  be  removed  from  its  support,  this 
should  be  done,  and  its  contact  put  in  condition.  If  it  cannot  readily  be 
taken  off,  it  may  be  smoothed  by  a  thin  file  or  emery  cloth.  The  screws 
which  hold  the  vibrator  to  its  tack  support  should  be  tight,  and  the 
adjusting  screw  should  be  left  firmly  clamped  in  its  thread  by  means  of 
the  set  screws  usually  supplied. 

VIBRATOR  ADJUSTMENT. 

Vibrator  adjustment  is  a  matter  of  experiment.  Two  screws  are  gen- 
erally (but  not  always)  provided  for  this  purpose,  one  which  determines 
the  upward  spring  of  the  vibrator  and  the  other  the  platinum  tipped 
contact  screw.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  spring  adjustment 
should  be  so  set  as  to  cause  the  vibrator  to  make  a  positive  contact  be- 
tween the  vibrator  and  the  contact  screw  to  insure  the  electric  circuit, 
but  it  should  not  have  an  excessive  tension,  as  then  the  electro-magnetism 
of  the  core  may  be  insufficient  toxlraw  down  and  cause  vibration,  and  too 
great  a  current  will  be  usedV  The  nearer  the  position  of  rest  of  the 
vibrator  is  to  the  core  of  the  coil,  the  stronger  will  be  the  field,  and  the 
spring  adjustment  should  be  so  made  as  to  take  account  of  this. 

The  engine  should  be  set  upon  the  sparking  point,  the  switch  thrown 
on  and  the  contact  screw  turned  back  and  forth  until  the  buzz  of  the 
vibrator  is  energetic  and  gives  forth  a  perfectly  even  sound.  The  adjust- 
ment may  be  tested  by  opening  and  closing  the  switch  very  rapidly  with 
the  engine  in  the  sparking  position.  If  the  vibrator  responds  infallibly 

82 


to  instantaneous  contacts  of  the  switch   it  will  probably   work  properly 
even  at  high  engine  speeds. 

A  GOOD  METHOD. 

A  good  method  of  vibrator  adjustment  is  the  following :  Take  the 
secondary  wires  out  of  their  connections  to  their  plugs  and  place  the 
ends  of,  each  of  them  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  some  part  of 
the  engine  or  engine  frame.  Then  adjust  each  vibrator  until  the  sec- 
ondary discharge  will  set  on  fire  in  the  shortest  length  of  time  a  sheet 
of  tissue  paper  held  between  its  secondary  wire  and  the  engine.  If  a 
spark  will  light  tissue  paper  almost  instantly  it  may  generally  be  relied 
upon  for  ignition  of  the  charge. 

This  manner  of  making  the  adjustment  will  secure  a  very  hot  spark, 
but  not  necessarily  economy  of  battery.  Special  instructions  on  this  sub- 
ject are  presented  in  the  section  of  this  book  devoted  to  the  coil  vibrator. 

(c)     A  break  or  burn-out  in  the  primary  winding  of  the  coil  is  so 
unlikely  as  to  hardly  require  mention,   but  the   connections   of   the   coil 
terminals  to  the  binding  screws  on  the  case  of  the  coil,  or  to  the  vibrator, 
may  have  become  loosened.    An  inspection  of  them  will  not  be  amiss. 
BATTERY  SWITCHES. 

(rf)  It  is  unfortunately  true  that  battery  switches  often  make  imper- 
fect contacts,  owing  generally  to  reliance  having  been  placed  upon  spring 
portions  of  metal  which  gradually  lose  their  resiliency  or  break  com- 
pletely. In  switches  of  the  plug  type  the  spring  fingers  with  which  the 
plug  makes  contact  may  have  been  bent  out  of  a  position  of  positive 
engagement,  may  have  become  dirty  or  corroded,  or  their  connecting 
wires  may  have  become  loosened.  Switches  of  the  three-point  variety 
for  two  sets  of  battery,  which  have  a  pivoted  contact  on  the  lever  arm, 
sometimes  make  a  poor  contact  at  the  pivot,  owing  to  wear  or  loss  of 
spring  in  the  little  brushes  which  are  supposed  to  preserve  the  contact. 
The  lever  arm  may  lose  its  spring  after  long  use  and  make  an  uncertain 
contact  with  the  battery  points. 

In  general,  defects  in  switches  are  due  to  spring  failure. 
BREAKS  IN  CONDUCTORS. 

(c)  Positive  breaks  in  the  wiring  are  more  easily  found  than  partial 
breaks  which  are  held  in  uncertain  contact  by  the  insulating  covering 
of  the  conductor.  Any  particular  wire  which  is  under  suspicion  of  being 
entirely  broken,  or  "open,"  may  be  tested  by  placing  the  engine  upon 
the  sparking  point,  closing  the  switch  and  touching  with  the  ends  of  a 
test  wire  the  two  points  to  which  the  suspected  wire  is  attached.  If  the 
current  begins  to  flow  when  this  is  done  the  wire  may  confidently  be 
condemned. 

A  wire  which  has  in  it  a  partial  break,  or  a  break  held  together  by  the 
insulation,  may  sometimes  be  tested  out  by  freeing  it  from  its  supports 
and  bending  it  sharply  at  successive  points  along  its  length — the  engine 
being  on  the  ignition  point  and  the  switch  on.  When  the  defective  point 
is  bent  an  indication  of  imperfect  continuity  will  probably  be  given  by 
the  making  and  breaking  of  the  current.  Points  where  the  wire  is 
sharply  moved  or  bent  in  the  operation  of  the  machine,  places  at  which  it 
is  abraded  or  strained  by  coming  into  contact  with  moving  parts  of  the 
car,  and  points  where  the  wire  is  fastened  to  binding  posts  by  screws 

83 


which  may  be  set  up  sufficiently  hard  to  cut  it  off,  should  be  very  closely 
inspected.  If  there  is  any  part  of  the  wire  which  seems  especially  limp 
when  handled  a  break  may  have  occurred  there.  The  wires  leading 
to  the  timer  are  the  only  portions  of  the  wiring  which  are  necessarily 
loose  and  subjected  to  bending,  and  very  often  a  wiring  break  will  be 
found  at  this  point.  Solid  wire  breaks  more  easily  than  cabled  or  stranded 
conductor,  but  when  the  latter  becomes  broken  the  defect  is  more  difficult 
of  location.  Small  wire  having  very  stiff,  thick  insulation  is  very  likely 
to  be  broken  when  sharply  bent. 

PRIMARY  SHORT  CIRCUITS. 

(3)  A  short  circuit  in  the  primary  wiring  may  be  detected  as  follows: 
Disconnect  the  wires  where  they  enter  the  coil  primaries  and  leave 
them  out  of  contact  with  anything.  Then  touch  the  switch  momentarily 
upon  each  of  its  two  battery  points,  and  if  the  slightest  spark  appears 
at  the  switch  contacts  (assuming  the  batteries  not  to  have  been  run 
down),  there  is  a  short  circuit.  If  this  test  is  not  considered  conclusive, 
any  electrician  with  a  magneto  testing  generator  can  determine  in  a  few 
minutes  whether  there  is  any  contact  between  wires  which  should  be 
insulated  one  from  the  other,  or  any  short  circuit  between  a  wire  and 
"ground,"  as  the  engine  and  connected  metallic  mechanism  is  called. 
"GROUNDS"  IN  PRIMARY. 

Short  circuits  from  a  wire  to  ground  are  generally  caused  by  the 
wearing  away  of  its  insulation  through  contact  with  some  metallic  por- 
tion of  the  engine  or  connected  parts.  A  moving  part  will  rapidly  cut 
through  any  insulation  and  produce  a  ground.  Muddy  water  soaking 
into  wire  having  inferior  insulation  will  produce  a  partial  short  circuit 
or  ground  to  a  metallic  body  upon  which  the  wire  rests,  but  such  a 
ground  may  require  the  magneto  test  for  its  detection.  Wet  wires  of 
poor  insulation  may  also  leak  to  one  another  if  held  closely  together. 

A  short  circuit  may  generally  be  removed  by  clearing  all  wires  of 
contact  with  any  metallic  bodies  and  by  pulling  each  wire  away  from 
others  which  have  hitherto  been  in  contact  with  it.  If  the  battery  is 
kept  connected  during  this  process,  and  the  short  circuit  is  complete,  or 
"dead,"  the  exact  location  of  the  defect  may  be  made  manifest  when  it 
is  disturbed  by  the  presence  of  a  spark.  If  all  wires  are  kept  dry  and 
away  from  other  conducting  bodies  short  circuits  need  not  be  apprehended. 
DEFECTS  IN  SECONDARY  CIRCUIT. 

(B)  Consider  a  defect  in  the  secondary  circuit  evidenced  by  a  failure 
of  ignition  when  the  coil  vibrators  are  working  regularly  and  energetically, 
and  everything  in  the  primary  circuit  has  been  inspected  and  approved. 
The  defect  may  be  any  one  of  the.  following:  (i)  An  open  circuit  or 
short  circuit  in  the  coil  secondary;  (2)  an  open  circuit  or  short  circuit 
in  the  secondary  wiring:  (3)  a  defective  plug. 

(i)  The  secondary  wires  should  be  detached  from  their  binding 
posts  on  the  coil,  and  a  short  piece  of  wire  connected  by  one  end  to 
one  of  the  secondary  binding  screws.  Its  other  end  should  be  brought 
to  within  about  one-half  inch  of  the  other  secondary  post.  Assuming 
that  the  battery  is  all  right,  and  the  vibrator  working  properly,  the  coil 
should  throw  a  perfectly  continuous  discharge  from  the  end  of  the  wire, 
hot  enough  to  ignite  a  sheet  of  tissue  paper  almost  instantly.  If  the  dis- 

84 


FIG.  59.— SPARK 
PLUG  TESTER 
WITH  PLUG 
IN  PLACE. 


charge  does  not  take  place,  and  a  pronounced  crackling  or  sizzling  can 
be  heard  from  within  the  coil,  or  if  the  discharge  is  intermittent  while 
the  vibrator  is  buzzing  regularly,  it  is  likely  that  the  coil  secondary  has 
broken  down. 

SPARK  PLUG  TESTS. 

A  spark  plug  tester  (Fig.  59)  may  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage in  this  test.  This  device  consists  of  a  small 
chamber  with  a  glass  window,  into  which  may  be 
screwed  a  spark  plug.  Means  are  provided  by  which  an 
air  pressure  may  be  pumped  up  in  this  chamber  in  order 
to  reproduce  the  conditions  of  gaseous  pressure  under 
which  the  plug  sparks  in  practice.  If  one  of  these 
testers  is  at  hand  a  plug  which  is  known  to  be  in  per- 
fect condition  should  be  screwed  into  it  and  the  pressure 
pumped  up.  The  short  wire  above  mentioned  should  be 
attached  to  the  plug  terminal  and  the  tester  placed  in 
contact  with  the  other  secondary  post.  A  perfectly  con- 
^ — ,J — I  tinuous,  "fat"  spark  of  an  intense  brilliancy  should  be 
r—j  the  result,  and,  if  so,  the  coil  secondary  may  be  con- 

sidered as  intact.    In  fact,  defects  in  first  class  coils  very 
seldom  develop,  and  one  should  not  hastily  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  coil  secondary  is  at  fault,  but  should 
be  sure  that  all  other  more  likely  causes  of  failure  have 
been  eliminated.    Of  course,  if  there  are  decided  noises 
to  be  heard,  indicating  a  discharge  within  the  coil,  or 
smoke  is  seen  coming  out  of  the  coil  case,  trouble  is 
evidently  present.    Defective  coils  can,  as  a  rule,  be  successfully  repaired 
by  the  manufacturers  only. 

SHORT  CIRCUITS  IN  SECONDARY. 

(2)  A    short    circuit    in    the    secondary    wiring    may    sometimes    be 
detected  by  removing  its  connection  from  the  spark  plug  and  allowing  the 
end  of  the  wire  to  remain  within  about  half  an  inch  of  the  plug  ter- 
minal.   When  the  coil  is  operated  under  these  conditions  a  discharge  may 
sometimes  be  seen  or  heard  leaping  from  the  secondary  wiring  to  some 
conducting  portion  of  the  car.    Reinsulating  the  defective  portion  of  thev 
wire,  or  removing  it  from  proximity  to  conducting  bodies,  is  the  natural 
course  of  procedure. 

If  the  foregoing  test  yields  inconclusive  results  the  secondary  wire 
may  be  entirely  disconnected  from  the  coil  and  from  the  plug,  and  a 
temporary  wire  held  free  from  all  conducting  bodies  connected  between 
the  two.  If  .the  spark  is  satisfactorily  obtained  with  this  test  wire  the 
regular  secondary  wiring  may  be  assumed  to  be  faulty.  Sometimes,  upon 
examination,  it  may  be  found  that  the  secondary  wire  has  become  dis- 
connected from  the  spark  plug,  or  has  become  broken.  The  remedy  for 
this  is  obvious.  Water  splashed  upon  the  secondary  wire  will  often 
short  circuit  it,  unless  it  is  very  carefully  insulated,  and  water  splashed 
upon  the  external  insulating  surfaces  of  a  spark  plug  will  short  circuit 
it  until  it  has  been  dried  off  by  the  heat. 

USE  OF  PLUG  TESTER. 

(3)  Testing  out  a  plug  can  be  successfully  accomplished  only  by  the 

85 


use  of  the  spark  plug  tester.  All  attempts  to  determine  the  condition  of 
a  plug  by  sparking  it  in  the  open  air  under  atmospheric  pressure  are  per- 
fectly futile.  The  gas  between  the  points  of  a  plug  under  the  conditions 
of  use  is  considerably  compressed,  and  gas  at  this  pressure  offers  a  very 
great  resistance  to  the  passage  of  the  discharge,  compared  with  the 
atmosphere  at  its  ordinary  pressure;  therefore,  the  discharge,  if  it  takes 
place  in  the  cylinder,  might  find  an  easier  path  through  a  film  of  soot  or  a 
crack  in  the  porcelain  than  through  the  resistant  gas  between  the  points, 
while  in  the  open  air  the  path  between  the  points  would  be  far  less  diffi- 
cult than  through  a  carbon  deposit  or  a  minute  defect  in  the  insulation. 

A  failure  to  spark  properly  when  tried  in  the  tester  indicates  that  the 
plug  is  short  circuited,  and  a  new  plug  should  be  tried.  Sometimes  the 
only  fault  with  the  plug  is  that  its  sparking  points  are  in  contact,  so  that 
no  spark  is  possible,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  points  may  have  been 
placed  so  far  apart  that  the  voltage  of  the  coil  is  insufficient  to  cause  a  dis- 
charge through  the  highly  compressed  charge.  A  little  over  one-thirty- 
second  of  an  inch  separation  between  the  spark  points  may  be  considered 
correct  in  the  absence  of  explicit  instructions  from  the  manufacturers. 
TEMPORARY  REPAIR  OF  PLUGS. 

If  a  spark  plug  is  short  circuited  and  no  spare  one  is  at  hand,  and  if  it 
still  remains  short  circuited  after  it  has  been  thoroughly  cleaned  exter- 
nally of  all  carbon  or  oil,  it  should  be  taken  apart,  care  being  exer- 
cised not  to  break  the  asbestos  washer  which  usually  packs  the  joint 
between  the  insulation  and  the  outside  shell.'  When  taken  apart  the 
internal  insulating  surfaces  can  be  cleaned,  and  if  the  porcelain  is  not 
cracked  the  plug  should  work  properly  upon  being  reassembled.  If  the 
packing  is  destroyed  in  the  process  a  temporary  packing  of  string  or  paper 
may  last  long  enough  to  carry  the  machine  home.  Even  in  case  of  a 
cracked  porcelain,  thick  shellac  forced  into  the  break  and  well  dried  out 
will  sometimes  cause  the  plug  to  work  properly,  for  a  time  at  least. 


Hydrometers    and    Their    Use    in    Connection    With 
Automobiles. 

The  hydrometer  is  an  instrument  for  determining  the  density  of 
liquids,  and  is  an  indispensable  adjunct  in  the  care  of  storage  batteries, 
as  it  furnishes  a  means  of  determining  the  density  of  the  electrolyte.  It 
is  also  of  great  assistance  in  testing  the  quality  of  gasoline  and  in  prop- 
erly compounding  non-freezing  solutions.  To  be  able  to  express  the 
density  of  a  liquid  in  definite  terms  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  standard 
density,  and  for  this  is  taken  the  density  of  distilled  water  at  60°  Fahr. 
Water  under  these  conditions  is  said  to  be  of  unit  specific  gravity  (the 
terms  "density"  and  "specific  gravity"  are  here  .used  interchangeably). 
The  specific  gravity  of  other  liquids  may  then  be  determined  in  the 
following  manner:  Weigh  off  1,000  grains  of  distilled  water  at  60° 
Fahr. ;  then  take  an  equal  bulk  of  the  liquid  the  specific  gravity  of  which 
is  to  be  determined  and  weigh  it;  its  weight  in  grains  divided  by  1,000 
will  be  its  specific  gravity.  For  instance,  chemically  pure  sulphuric  acid 
equal  in  bulk  to  1,000  grains  of  water  weighs  1,845  grains;  hence,  the 
specific  gravity  of  sulphuric  acid  is  1.845. 


It  is,  however,  not  very  convenient  to  accurately  measure  and  weigh 
a  quantity  of  the  liquid  the  specific  gravity  of  which  is  to  be  deter- 
mined, and  the  same  object  is  accomplished  much  more  readily  by  means 
of  a  hydrometer.  This  instrument  is  based  on  the  law  of  floating  bodies 
— that  such  bodies  will  displace  a  volume  of  the  liquid  in  which  they 
float  equal  to  their  own  weight.  If  the  liquid  tested  is  of  low  density 
or  low  specific  gravity  a  greater  bulk  of  it  is  required  to  equal  the 
weight  of  the  floating  body,  and  the  latter  therefore  sinks  deeper  into 
the  liquid,  so  as  to  displace  more  of  it.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  liquid 
tested  is  of  high  specific  gravity  a  smaller  bulk  of  it  is  equal  to  the 
weight  of  the  floating  body  and  the  latter  sinks  into  it  less  deeply. 
Hence  the  depth  to  which  a  floating  body  sinks  into  a  liquid  is  an  indi- 
cation of  the  density  of  that  liquid. 

The  hydrometer  consists  of  a  glass  tube,  with  a  bulb  at  one  end  and 
a  stem  of  small  diameter  at  the  other.  The  bulb  is  filled  with  lead  shot, 
in  order  to  make  it  heavy  and  cause  the  tube  to  float  with  the  stem 
pointing  straight  upward.  Upon  the  stem  are  inscribed  division  marks 
from  which  the  density  can  be  read  off  directly,  in  terms  of  one  of  a 
large  number  of  different  scales.  The  only  two  scales  which  interest 
the  automobilist  are  the  so  called  specific  gravity  scale  and  the  Baume  scale. 
HYDROMETER  SCALES. 

The  zero  point  for  the  specific  gravity  scale  is  found  by  placing  the 
instrument  in  distilled  water  at  60°  Fahr.,  and  making  a  mark  on  the 
stem  where  it  emerges  from  the  liquid.  Other  points  on  the  scale  can 
be  determined  by  preparing  liquids  of  different  densities — salt  solution, 
for  instance— determining  their  specific  gravity  by  weighing  and  meas- 
uring as  described  above,  placing  the  instrument  in  these  liquids  and 
marking  the  specific  gravity  of  each  liquid  on  the  stem  where  it  emerges 
from  that  liquid. 

Some  of  the  liquids  which  require  to  be '  tested  as  to  their  density 
are  lighter  than  water,  while  others  are  heavier.  Petroleum  and  all  its 
products,  alcohol,  benzine,  etc.,  are  all  lighter  than  water.  Salt  solu- 
tions, acids,  etc.,  are  heavier  than  water.  In  the  United  States  the 
specific  gravity  scale  is  largely  used  for  expressing  the  density  of  liquids 
heavier  than  water;  it  is  used  exclusively  for  testing  the  density  of  storage 
battery  electrolyte.  This  scale  is  certainly  the  easiest  to  understand 
for  the  layman.  The  objection  made  to  it  and  the  excuse  for  the  many 
other  scales  are  that  the  use  of  four  figures  in  expressing  a  density  is 
confusing  and  annoying. 

THE  BAUME  SCALES. 

There  are  two  entirely  different  Baume  scales,  one  being  used  for 
testing  liquids  heavier  than  water,  and  the  other  for  liquids  lighter  than 
water.  These  scales  are  due  to  Antoine  Baume,  a  French  chemist,  and 
were  originated  in  1768.  The  Baume  scale  for  liquids  heavier  than 
water  is  only  rarely  used.  It  was  obtained  as  follows :  The  zero  point 
was  first  determined  by  immersing  the  instrument  in  distilled  water 
at  60°  Fahr.  Then  a  solution  of  sodium  chloride  (common  salt)  was 
made  containing  15  per  cent,  of  salt  and  85  per  cent,  of  water,  and  the 
point  to  which  the  instrument  sank  in  this  solution  was  marked  15 
degrees.  The  distance  between  the  zero  mark  and  the  15°  mark  was 


Baume 
Degrees, 
o 

Specific 
Gravity. 

I   OOO 

Baume 
Degrees. 
8 

i 

1  .007 

2 

I  013 

10 

•3 

I   O2O 

ii                    .... 

4 

I.O27 

12                            ...                .  .  .  . 

5" 

.     I   O34 

13                         

6  

I   041 

14           .  .            

7... 

.     1.048 

IS... 

divided  into  fifteen  equal  spaces,  and  the  graduation  continued  beyond  the 
15°  mark.  This  scale  is  used  on  hydrometers  for  testing  the  electrolyte  of 
certain  primary  cells.  The  following  table  gives  a  comparison  of  this 
scale  with  the  specific  gravity  scale: 

Specific 
Gravity. 
056 
063 
070 
078 
086 
094 
101 
109 

The  Baume  scale  for  liquids  lighter  than  water  is  of  more  interest, 
as  it  is  used  in  this  country  for  testing  gasoline  and  other  oils,  although 
in  France,  where  this  scale  originated,  the  gravity  scale  is  now  used  for 
this  purpose.  This  scale  (Baume)  is  obtained  as  follows:  The  point 
to  which  the  instrument  sinks  into  distilled  water  at  60°  Fahr.  is  marked 
10°.  The  point  to  which  the  instrument  sinks  into  a  10  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  sodium  chloride  (common  salt)  is  marked  zero.  The  space 
between  these  marks  is  then  divided  into  ten  equal  divisions  and  the 
graduation  continued  beyond  the  10°  mark  in  the  same  manner — that  is, 
the  whole  stem  is  divided  into  linear  divisions  equal  to  one-tenth  the 
distance  between  the  zero  and  10°  marks.  Baume  only  made  hydrom- 
eters showing  up  to  50°,  as  at  that  time  no  lighter  liquids  were  known 
or  in  use.  But  as  the  light  distillates  of  petroleum,  including  gasoline, 
are  lighter  than  50°  Baume,  the  scale  has  recently  been  extended  to 
90°.  The  table  on  this  page  gives  a  comparison  of  that  part  of  this  scale 
which  is  likely  to  be  useful  to  the  automobilist  in  testing  gasoline,  with 
the  specific  gravity  scale. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  two  scales  vary  in  opposite  directions— that 
is,  the  smaller  the  specific  gravity  of  the  liquid,  the  greater  its  Baume 
test.  This  is  certainly  somewhat  confusing  to  the  novice.  A  specific 
gravity  of  .700  corresponds  to  nearly  70°  Baume,  and  as  this  is  about 
the  density  of  the  gasoline  generally  used  for  automobiles,  there  is  con- 
siderable chance  for  confounding  the  two  scales  when  speaking  of  the 
density  of  gasoline. 


Baume 
Degrees. 
64 

Specific 
Gravity. 

724 

Baume 
Degrees. 

71 

Specific 
Gravity. 
602 

65  

720 

74 

680 

66  

717 

•7S 

68  <; 

67  

711 

76 

682 

68  

700 

77 

670 

69  

706 

78 

67  <; 

70  

7O2 

70 

672 

71  

600 

80 

660 

72... 

.DOS 

RANGE  OF  SCALES. 

In  order  to  make  hydrometers  compact  and  easy  and  accurate  to  read 
they  are  provided  with  only  a  small  range  of  scale  readings,  and  instru- 
ments are  made  specially  for  specific  purposes,  such  as  testing  gasoline, 
alcohol,  storage  battery  electrolyte,  etc.  The  average  density  of  gasoline 
is  about  70°  Baume,  and  a  scale  ranging  from  60°  to  80°  Baume  is  quite 
sufficient  for  a  gasoline  hydrometer.  The  density  of  the  electrolyte  in 
a  lead  storage  battery  varies  approximately  between  1.200  (at  charge) 
and  1.120  (at  discharge),  so  that  an  instrument  graduated  from  1.050  to 
1.300  will  be  quite  suitable  for  this  purpose.  A  calcium  chloride  solu- 
tion made  by  diluting  one  part  of  saturated  solution  with  one  part  of 
water  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.22,  and  the  density  should  never  be 
allowed  to  exceed  1.30  to  1.32,  so  that  a  storage  battery  hydrometer  may 
also  be  used  for  testing  non-freezing 
solutions 

Fig.  60  shows  a  typical  gasoline  hy- 
drometer for  automobile  purposes.  The 
scale  on  the  instrument  has  a  range  ex- 
tending from  60°  Baume  to  82°  or  85° 
Baume.  The  instrument  is  contained  in 
a  flannel  bag,  enclosed  in  a  glass  test- 
ing jar,  and  is  enclosed  in  a  nickel 
plated  carrying  case,  4^  inches  long  ty 
I  inch  diameter.  This  case  permits  of 
carrying  the  instrument  in  the  tool  box 
without  danger  of  injuring  it.  There 
is  also  now  being  made  a  hydrometer 
combined  with  a  thermometer  on  the 
same  stem,  to  allow  of  readily  making 
corrections  for  variations  in  temperature. 
TEMPERATURE  CORRECTION. 

The   density   of   every   liquid   varies 
with   the  temperature,  and  to  ascertain 
the  character  of  a  liquid  by  its  density     FlG-  60.— GASOLINE  HYDROMETER. 
the  latter  must  be  taken  at  a  specified 

temperature — 60°  Fahr.  Heat  expands  the  gasoline — that  is,  makes  it  less 
dense— and,  therefore,  if  a  hydrometer  reading  be  taken  at  a  temperature 
above  60°  Fahr.  the  liquid  tested  will  show  a  lower  density — that  is,  a 
higher  degree  Baume — than  at  the  normal  temperature,  and  vice  versa. 
For  every  eight  degrees  the  thermometer  is  above  60,  one  degree  should 
be  subtracted  from  the  reading  of  the  hydrometer,  and  for  every  eight 
degrees  the  thermometer  is  below  60,  one  degree  should  be  added  to  the 
Baume  degrees. 

HYDROMETER   SYRINGE. 

Fig.  61  herewith  shows  a  hydrometer  syringe  for  use  in  connection 
with  automobile  storage  batteries.  Automobile  storage  batteries,  both 
those  used  for  propulsion  and  those  for  ignition  purposes,  are  entirely 
closed,  except  for  a  small  filling  hole  in  the  cover,  into  which  a  perfo- 
rated hard  rubber  plug  is  screwed.  It  is  impossible  to  insert  a  hydrometer 
into  the  cell  and  read  it,  as,  in  the  first  place,  the  plates  are  very  close  to- 


FIG.  61.— STORAGE  BATTERY 


gether,  leaving  no  room  between  them  for 
the  instrument ;  besides,  as  the  cell  is  always 
of  hard  rubber,  it  would  be  impossible  to 
read  the  instrument  if  it  could  be  inserted. 
The  only  way  of  making  a  hydrometer  test 
is,  therefore,  to  draw  some  of  the  electrolyte 
from  the  cell  and  place  the  instrument  in  it. 
This  is  done  very  readily  and  in  a  very 
cleanly  manner  by  means  of  the  hydrometer 
syringe  shown  herewith.  First  the  vent  plug 
is  unscrewed  from  the -cover  of  the  battery 
cell,  and  the  tip  of  the  syringe  is  inserted 
through  the  hole,  with  the  rubber  bulb  of  the 
syringe  compressed.  Then  the  bulb  is  re- 
leased, the  syringe  partly  fills  with  electro- 
lyte, and  the  reading  of  the  instrument  can 
be  taken  through  the  wall  of  the  syringe. 
The  bulb  is  then  compressed  again,  which 
ejects  the  electrolyte  from  the  syringe  back 
into  the  cell.  The  tip  of  the  syringe  need  not 
be  taken  out  of  the  cell,  and  there  is  there- 
fore little  chance  of  spilling  any  of  the  acid 
on  one's  clothes,  etc.  In  storage  battery  work 
there  is  no  necessity  for  such  fine  readings 
as  in  testing  gasoline,  and  it  is  not  customary 
to  make  corections  for  variations  in  tem- 
perature. 

In  the  sub-figure  in  Fig.  61  is  shown  a 
special  tip  furnished  with  the  hydrometer 
syringe  for  adjusting  the  liquid  level 
in  the  cells.  By  resting  the  closed  end  of 


HYDROMETER  SYRINGE.        the  tip  on  the  electrodes  and  allowing  the 
bulb  to  distend,   any   excess   acid   can   be   removed. 


00 


CARBURATION. 


The  maintenance  of  the  proper  supply  of  gaseous  fuel  for  the  engine 
of  a  motor  car  may  properly  be  regarded  as  the  problem  requiring,  next 
after  ignition,  the  greatest  exercise  of  care  upon  the  part  of  the  operator. 
A  few  facts  relative  to  the  fuel  employed  will  therefore  be  presented, 
a  brief  treatment  of  the  principle  of  the  carburetor  will  then  be  given 
and  the  derangements  to  which  it  is  commonly  subject  will  then  be 
discussed. 


Gasoline. 

(ALBERT   L.   CLOUGH.) 

NATURE   AND   DERIVATION. 

The  light  product  of  petroleum,  known  in  this  country  as  gasoline  and 
abroad  as  petrol,  motor  car  spirit  or  motorine,  is  employed,  in  its  varying 
grades,  as  fuel,  in  all  internal  combustion  oil  motors  that  form  their 
explosive  mixture  without  thorough  preliminary  heating  of  the  hydro- 
carbon. Such  motors  comprise  practically  all  automobile  engines  in  use 
at  the  present  time. 

The  source  of  gasoline  is  the  first,  or  lightest,  of  the  three  "fractions" 
into  which  crude  petroleum  is  divided  by  the  process  of  distillation,  and 
the  term  is  applied  to  products  differing  somewhat  in  specific  gravity  and 
composition. 

The  first  fraction  of  the  distillation  comprises  the  volatile,  ethereal 
portions  of  the  petroleum;  the  second,  the  more  stable  liquid  portion, 
mainly  kerosene,  and  the  third,  the  very  heavy  or  solid  components — lubri- 
cating oils,  paraffine,  vaseline  and  others.  The  difference  in  their  boiling 
points,  as  always  in  the  process  of  fractional  distillation,  forms  the  means 
of  separation  of  the  many  substances  which  petroleum  furnishes. 

In  the  process  of  petroleum  distillation  the  crude  oil  from  the  wells 
is  placed  in  large  stills  of  boiler  iron  and  heated  by  a  fire  beneath.  The 
vapors  which  pass  from  the  still  through  the  vapor  pipe  are  led  to  the 
condenser,  where  they  resume  the  liquid  form  under  the  influence  of  the 
cold  water  circulating  about  the  condenser  pipes.  The  first  or  light  frac- 
tion of  the  distillation,  which  is  separated  from  the  portion  yielding  kero- 
sene by  a  merely  arbitrary  line  of  demarcation,  is  called  crude  naphtha, 
and  its  components  vary  in  specific  gravity  from  90°  B.  to  62°  B.,  or 
lower.  This  liquid  is  the  source  of  commercial  gasoline  and  its  allied 
fluids. 

This  naphtha  may  then  be  further  treated  in  steam  heated  stills  and 
further  fractionated.  The  two  most  volatile  products  thus  obtained, 
cymogene  and  rhigolene,  do  not  concern  the  motor  car  user,  as  they  boil 

91 


at  temperatures  below  that  of  the  air.  Next  comes  a  liquid  called  gaso- 
line, but  which  is  very  much  lighter  than  that  used  for  motor  power 
purposes,  having  a  density  of  88°  B.  to  86°  B.  The  next  fraction,  some- 
times known  as  boulevard  gas  fluid,  but  more  often  as  .680  or  76°  gaso- 
line, is  the  stove  gasoline  of  commerce,  and  is  the  fuel  most  commonly 
used  in  automobile  motors.  Next  in  order  of  density  comes  the  73°  to 
68°  liquid,  sometimes  known  as  benzoline  or  prime  city  naphtha,  but 
frequently  vended  as  gasoline  and  suitable  for  automobile  use,  except 
in  surface  carburetors  in  cold  weather.  It  is  more  commonly  supplied 
as  gasoline  than  the  76°  article.  Below  this  in  volatility  and  the  densest 
of  the  series  is  benzine  of  62°  density,  which  is  used  as  a  solvent  in  var- 
nishes and  for  similar  purposes. 

These  trade  names  mean  very  little  and  are  very  loosely  used,  and 
the  specific  gravities  of  these  various  liquids  are  subject  to  considerable 
variation.  Of  late,  on  account  of  the  enormous  increase  in  the  demand 
for  gasoline  to  be  used  as  automobile  engine  fuel,  there  has  been  a  strong 
tendency  to  utilize  a  greater  proportion  of  the  crude  naphtha  fraction  for 
this  purpose,  with  the  result  that  the  denser  portions  of  the  fraction  are 
now  more  largely  present  in  the  gasoline  being  vended. 
DENSITY  TESTS  AND  STANDARDS. 

Ordinarily,  in  asking  for  gasoline,  one  secures  a  fluid  testing  at  about 
68°  B.  Fortunately,  in  modern  carburetors,  in  ordinary  weather,  almost 
any  grade  of  petroleum  spirit  will  serve  as  fuel — at  least  temporarily. 
The  only  way  of  ascertaining  what  quality  of  gasoline  is  being  obtained 
is  by  testing  it  with  a  hydrometer  intended  for  use  in  liquids  lighter  than 
water.  Hydrometers  are  not  expensive  and  can  be  obtained  from  almost 
any  instrument  dealer.  The  construction  of  the  hydrometer,  its  principles 
and  the  method  of  its  use  are  fully  treated  in  an  earlier  portion  of  this 
work. 

Nearly  all  petroleums  yield,  upon  distillation,  some  gasoline  suitable 
for  motor  use,  but  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  proportion  derived 
from  the  various  crude  oils.  Pennsylvania  petroleum  averages  to  yield 
not  greatly  more  than  from  8  to  10  per  cent,  of  its  bulk  of  gasoline  suit- 
able for  this  purpose,  and  the  Russian  oil  and  shale  oil  yield  even  less. 
Asphalt  base  oils  are  very  low  in  gasoline. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  gasoline  supply  is  strictly  limited  by  nature 
and  should  be  carefully  conserved  if  the  price  is  to  be  prevented  from 
becoming  prohibitive.  The  future  of  the  internal  combustion  oil  engine 
must  depend  largely  upon  the  possibility  of  the  successful  utilization  of 
alcohols  or  of  petroleum  products  that  are  denser  and  thus  less  restricted 
in  supply. 

COMPOSITION   AND   PROPERTIES. 

Gasoline  of  a  certain  specific  gravity  varies  widely  as  to  its  boiling 
point,  as  it  is  itself  complex  and  capable  of  fractionization.  It  begins  to 
boil  at  about  120°  Fahr.  and  is  completely  evaporated  at  about  250°  Fahr. 
Its  composition  is  also  quite  indefinite,  but  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  mix- 
ture of  hydrocarbons  of  the  methane  or  paraffine  group,  of  the  general 
formula  CnH2n  +  2.  Hexame  CeHi4  and  Heptane  CTH«,  with  their  iso-com- 
pounds,  probably  constitute  a  large  part  of  the  gasoline  used  in  automobile 
.engines. 

92 


Gasoline  spontaneously  evaporates  at  all  temperatures  down  to  the 
Fahrenheit  zero  or  thereabouts,  and  its  vapor  forms  explosive  mixtures 
with  air  in  a  somewhat  wide  range  of  proportions.  In  a  series  of  experi- 
ments conducted  with  76°  gasoline  with  the  temperature  of  the  air  at 
65°  to  68°  Fahr.,  it  was  found  by  Redwood  that  mixtures  of  saturated 
vapor  and  air  in  proportions  ranging  from  5  to  100  to  12.5  to  100  were 
explosive.  With  the  proportion  of  n  parts  of  saturated  vapor  to  100 
parts  of  air  the  explosion  was  most  violent. 

The  heat  of  combustion  as  figured  from  the  percentage  composition 
of  the  liquid  and  sometimes  stated  as  the  potential  energy  contained  in  it 
is  based  upon  the  complete  oxidation  of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  which 
it  contains.  In  practice,  however,  the  combustion  is  not  complete  and 
results  not  only  in  the  formation  of  water  and  carbonic  acid,  but  in  the 
production  of  carbon  monoxide  and  of  unsaturated  hydrocarbon  com- 
pounds which  are  partly  responsible  for  the  odor  of  the  exhaust. 

In  case  of  gasoline  becoming  accidentally  ignited,  it  is  useless  to  try 
to  quench  the  flame  with  water,  as  the  oil  will  float  upon  it  and  continue 
to  burn.  Dry  sand  is  very  effective  as  an  extinguisher  for  these  fires  and 
should  be  kept  constantly  on  hand  where  gasoline  is  stored  or  used. 

Chemical  extinguishers  are  also  effective  against  gasoline  fires. 


The  Storage  and   Handling  of  Gasoline. 

(N.    B.    POPE.) 

Probably  the  most  important  consideration  in  connection  with  the 
handling  of  fuels  and  the  cars  themselves  is  the  proper  ventilation  of  the 
garage.  This  should  be  looked  after  both  on  account  of  the  danger  from 
an  accumulation  of  explosive  gases  and  because  of  the  poisonous  nature 
of  the  exhausts  from  motors. 

In  handling  inflammable  liquids,  as  far  as  possible,  they  should  be  kept 
away  from  the  air.  Safety  cans  of  various  sorts  have  been  designed  with 
a  view  to  reducing  the  danger  as  much  as  possible,  and  some  one  of 
them  should  always  be  used  where  frequent  handling  is  required.  A  can 
recommended  by  the  Board  of  Underwriters  is  constructed  substantially 
and  arranged  to  automatically  seal  itself  under  all  conditions.  Fig.  62 
shows  a  section  of  the  pump  and  filling  valve  of  this  device. 

The  delivery  pipe  is  arranged  to  telescope  into  the  pump  when  not 
required,  and  to  swing  in  any  direction  for  convenience  in  use.  The 
check  valve  of  the  pump  is  shown  by  A  in  the  sketch,  near  the  outlet. 
In  action  it  is  lifted  into  its  socket  out  of  the  way  by  the  flow  of  the  oil, 
but  at  other  times  is  held  to  its  seat  by  its  own  weight.  Its  location  per- 
mits it  to  serve  the  double  purpose  of  check  for  the  pump  and  an 
automatic  seal  on  the  can.  The  filling  valve  C  is  closed  by  a  stout 
spring,  except  when  for  the  purpose  of  filling  it  is  opened  by  pressure 
on  the  stem  D.  This  provides  a  self  closing  filling  aperture  and  a  means 
for  returning  the  drip  from  the  pump  back  into  the  tank. 

Where  the  consumption  is  sufficiently  great,  or  the  source  of  supply 
at  all  remote,  so  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  have  on  hand  large 

93 


quantities  of  fuel,  special 
provision  must  be  made  for 
permanent  storage,  with  due 
regard  to  its  isolation. 
Handling  inflammable  liq- 
uids involves  a  twofold 
danger,  first,  from  the  igni- 
tion of  the  liquid  or  its 
vapor  from  spark  or  flame, 
and,  second,  from  explosion 
as  a  result  of  fire  from  an 
outside  source,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  burning  of  a 
neighboring  building. 

Safety  may  be  secured 
by  affording  ample  ventila- 
tion to  storage  room,  and  by 
excluding  from  it  all  arti' 
ficial  light  and  making  pro- 
vision to  draw  only  such 
amounts  as  are  needed  for 
immediate  use.  The  isola- 
tion of  the  supply  is  a  more 
difficult  matter,  especially  in 
the  cities,  but  can  be 
accomplished  by  burying  the 
tank  beneath  the  ground, 
or  locating  it  in  a  stone 

or  brick  vault  or  pit,  closed  with  fireproof  doors.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  gasoline  evaporates  at  all  temperatures,  and  that  the 
inflammable  gas  is  being  given  off  in  the  coldest  weather  as  well  as  in 
summer,  though  not  in  as  great  quantities.  To  minimize  the  danger  from 
an  accumulation  of  vapor,  as  well  as  to  prevent  any  possibility  of  a  dan- 
gerous pressure  being  formed,  the  supply  tank  and  its  enclosure  must 
always  be  kept  where  a  free  circulation  of  air  is  possible. 

The  proper  location  of  the  supply  and  method  of  drawing  from  it 
depends  largely  on  circumstances.  Wherever  it  be  possible  it  is  best 
to  bury  the  tank  under  ground,  at  a  point  at  least  as  far  from  buildings 
as  the  insurance  regulations  require,  and  pipe  the  outlet  to  a  brick  or 
zinc  lined  closet,  well  ventilated  and  drained.  This  may  also  prove  very 
serviceable  as  a  stock  room  for  lubricants,  waste,  etc. 

The  supply  may  be  pumped  from  the  tank  or  forced  to  the  desired 
point  by  air  pressure.  When  it  is  impossible  to  store  under  ground  a 
fireproof  vault  may  be  used  and  the  supply  maintained  in  wooden  barrels. 
But  this  is  not  a  good  method  unless  the  supply  is  to  be  used  very 
rapidly,  because  the  necessary  ventilation  tends  to  shrink  the  wood  and 
thereby  increase  the  amount  of  evaporation  or  leakage  from  the 
barrels. 

All  empty  barrels  should  be  removed  from  the  premises  at  once,  as 
they  are  always  more  or  less  saturated  with  oily  residuum  and  are  apt 


FIG.    62. — SAFETY    GASOLINE    STORAGE 
TANK. 


94 


to  give  off  inflammable 
gases,  even  after  they  have 
been  lying  empty  for  some 
time.  It  is  better  10  make 
the  arrangement  more 
permanent,  using  a  metal 
barrel  or  tank  and  piping  it 
in  a  substantial  manner, 
with  due  care  to  avoid 
leakages,  to  the  point  where 
the  liquid  is  to  be  used.  A 
glycerine  drum  may  be 


xTHE   HORSELESS  »OEX 


made  for   the  purpose  and    FIQ   6       TANK  BL:KIED  UNUERGkoUND  QUT- 
fitted    with    suitable    piping 

SIDE,   WITH    CONNECTION  TO   PUMP  IN- 


SIDE BUILDING. 


and  a  pump  must  be  ob- 
tained. The  latter  is  shown 
in  Fig.  63.  Another  good 

outfit  is  fitted  with  a  measuring  pump,  which  may  be  set  to  deliver  any 
desired  amount,  from  a  half  pint  to  several  gallons  (Fig.  64). 

Another  convenient  way  to  draw  off  the   fuel  is  to  use  compressed 

air.  This  is  very  simple 
in  a  station  where  a  com- 
pressor and  tank  are  al- 
ready in  use  for  pumping 
tires.  A  three-way  cock 
must  be  arranged  in  the 
pressure  line,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  65,  to  insure  ventila- 
tion when  no  oil  is  being 
drawn.  In  this  diagram 
A  is  the  air  pressure  sup- 
ply pipe,  B  the  three-way 
cock,  D  the  pressure  line 
to  the  pipe,  C  the  pressure 
relief  pipe,  E  the  gasoline 
suction  line,  G  the  gaso- 
line delivery  pipe,  and  F 
t  h  e  gasoline  shut-off 
valve. 

Commercial  gasoline  is 
a  blending  of  several  dif- 
ferent petroleum  distil- 
lates proportioned  to  se- 
cure the  desired  specific 
gravity.  Hence  the  com- 
position varies  from  lot 

to  lot,  and  the  test  alters  slightly  from  day  to  day  sometimes,  owing 
to  the  separation  of  the  constituents.  Because  of  the  uncertainty  of 
the  commodity,  as  well  as  its  known  propensities,  it  is  never  safe 
to  handle  it  anywhere  in  the  vicinity  of  open  flame.  Safety 


FIG.  64. — BOWSER  GASOLINE  SYSTEM  WITH 
MEASURING  PUMP. 


demands  that  no  open  flame 
lights  be  used,  and  that  elec- 
tric wiring  be  insulated  with 
extra  care  where  gasoline  or 
naphtha  is  much  used.  In 
this  connection  it  should  be 
said  that  all  ventilating  pipes 
leading  to  tanks  and  vaults 
should  be  protected  by  wire 
gauze  to  prevent  any  possible 
communication  of  fire. 

The  principle  of  complete 
insulation  must  be  carried 
out  in  the  machine  as  well 
as  in  the  stable,  as  a  flood- 

FIG.  6S.-GASOLINE  SUPPLY  PIPING.  ing  carburetor  or  a  Ieaky  P^ 

may  cause   its   destruction  at 

any  moment,  as  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  predict  just  where  or  when  a  critical  mixture  will  be  found 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  muffler,  commutator  or  a  lamp. 


Filtering  Gasoline. 

(FRANK  N.  BLAKE.) 

It  is  of  prime  importance  that  all  gasoline  be  carefully  filtered  when 
it  is  put  into  the  tank  of  an  automobile,  and  as  this  is  quickly  and  easily 
done  there  is  no  excuse  for  neglecting  this  most  reasonable  precaution. 

Fine  wire  gauze,  cloth  and  chamois 
are  used  for  filtering  gasoline,  and  prob- 
ably all  three  materials  do  the  work  fairly 
well,  but  acting  on  the  principle  that 
whatever  is  worth  doing  is  worth  doing 
well,  it  seems  best  to  use  chamois  for  this 
purpose;  it  is  certain  that  neither  water 
nor  dirt  will  go  through  chamois,  though 
gasoline  flows  through  it  with  surprising 
freedom. 

A  common  method  of  using  chamois 
is  to  spread  it  over  a  funnel  and  then  pour 
the  gasoline  through  it,  but  this  way  is 
open  to  objections;  the  leather  lies  against 
the  funnel  and  hinders  the  free  flow  of 
gasoline,  and  this  occasions  a  waste  of 
time  and  also  of  gasoline  through  evapora- 
tion. The  next  time  the  filter  is  used  the 
dirt  strained  from  the  gasoline  the  last 
time  it  was  used  will  be  washed  into  the 

tank,  unless  care  is  taken  to  always  use  FIG.  66. — WIRE  GAUZE  GASO- 
the  right  side  of  the  filter.     At  any  rate,      LINE  STRAINER  (BREEZE). 

96 


both  funnel  and  chamois  are  liable  to  be  dirty,  unless  they  are  put  away 
and    kept    more    carefully    than    is    commonly    done. 
COMBINED  FUNNEL  AND  FILTER. 

A  good  funnel  and  filter  combined  is  made  by  taking  a  tin  can  or  pail 
of  suitable  size  and  provided  with  a  shut-over  cover,  and  suspending  a 
circular  piece  of  chamois  in  it  by  sewing  it  to  a  wire  ring  fitting  the  inside 
of  the  can  and  held  near  the  top  by  three  little  tin  lugs  soldered  to  the 
inside  of  the  can ;  a  spout  soldered  into  the  bottom  at  the  corner  and 
provided  with  a  cap  completes  the  device.  The  chamois  should  bag  down, 
but  not  quite  touch  the  bottom  of  the  can.  The  cover  keeps  the  filter 
clean,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  prevents  the  evaporation  of  the  gasoline 
which  is  left  in  the  leather,  and  the  cap  on  the  spout  contributes  to  the 
same  end.  This  filter  works  very  rapidly,  as  there  is  a  large  area  to  the 
filtering  medium  and  it  all  hangs  clear  of  any  obstruction,  besides  having 
considerable  pressure  on  the  lower  part  when  the  filter  is  kept  nearly  full. 

This  filter  is  convenient  to  carry  if  you  are  traveling  beyond  the  capacity 
of  your  tank.  Of  all  things,  one  should  be  most  careful  not  to  get  dirt  or 
water  into  the  tank  while  away  from  home,  and  it  is  not  only  less  trouble 
to  have  your  own  filter-funnel  always  at  hand,  ready  to  use,  but  it  is  also 
far  safer  to  use  it  when  taking  in  gasoline  at  all  sorts  of  places,  in  prefer- 
enee  to  the  dealer's  funnel,  which  may  be  both  wet  and  dirty.  His  measure 
may  be  wet  and  his  gasoline  dirty,  but  if  they  are,  no  harm  will  result  if 
the  gasoline  is  poured  through  your  filter. 

CONVENIENT  SIZE  OF  FUNNEL. 

A  can  4  inches  in  diameter  and  4  or  5  inches  deep  is  a  good  size  to  use, 
and,  of  course,  is  less  bulky  to  carry  than  a  larger  one.  A  larger  one  is 
more  convenient  for  pouring  into  from  a  full  gallon  measure,  though  the 
smaller  one  does  very  well  unless  some  part  of  the  car  is  in  the  way. 

Filtering    funnels    of    copper    or    galvanized    iron    and    equipped    with 
removable  chamois  strainers  are  to  be  had  of  supply  dealers.     These  are 
made  in  various  sizes,  the  larger  ones  being  more  convenient  and  quicker 
acting,  although  not  so  readily  carried  upon  a  car. 
GASOLINE  SEPARATORS.    x 

In  Fig.  66  is  shown  a  gasoline  separator  or  strainer  intended'  to  be 
inserted  in  the  fuel  pipe  between  the  tank  and  the  carburetor.  The  con- 
nection with  the  tank  is  by  the  threaded  union  on  the  left  hand  side 
of  the  figure,  and  that  to  the  carburetor  upon  the  right  hand  side.  Drops 
of  water  or  solid  particles  gravitate  into  the  central  standpipe  through 
the  bottom  hole  thereof  and  thence  into  the  drain  cock  fitting,  which, 
when  opened,  allows  them  to  escape.  The  gasoline  passes  down  into  the 
standpipe  through  the  upper  hole  therein,  thence  into  the  body  of  the 
separator  and  upwardly,  through  four  thicknesses  of  fine  wire  gauze, 
shown  in  section  in  the  diagram,  out  to  the  carburetor. 

Most  cars  are  fitted  with  a  strainer  of  this  character. 


The   Gasoline   Carburetor. 

The  source  of  the  mixture  of  gasoline  vapor  and  air,  which  forms 
the  fuel  charge  of  the  engine,  is  called  the  carburetor  or  vaporizer. 
Gasoline  is  one  of  the  liquids  which  have  a  very  low  boiling  point  and 

97 


which  are  constantly  evaporating,  even  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and 
saturating  the  air  with  which  they  are  immediately  in  contact  with  their 
vapor.  The  office  of  a  carburetor  is  merely  to  rapidly  bring  a  large 
body  of  air  into  intimate  contact  with  a  quantity  of  gasoline  in  the  form 
of  spray,  and  to  effect  the  evaporation  of  the  latter  by  the  former,  and 
supply  the  resulting  gas  to  the  engine.  Such  control  of  the  air  and  gaso- 
line supplies  must  be  'at  all  times  maintained  as  will  cause  the  result- 
ing mixture  to  contain  the  two  ingredients  in  proper  proportions.  There 
must  be  no  undue  preponderance  of  air,  as  in  that  case,  even  though  the 
mixture  should  ignite,  its  temperature  and  useful  expansion  would  be 
reduced  by  the  excess.  On  the  other  hand,  there  should  not  be  too 
much  gasoline  vapor,  as  fuel  would  be  thrown  away,  unburned  or  decom- 
posed into  soot,  on  account  of  there  not  being  enough  air  to  consume 
it.  As  ordinarily  constructed  a  carburetor  consists  of  the  following 
essential  parts : '  the  float  chamber  and  its  float  and  needle  valve,  the 
vaporizing  chamber,  and  the  standpipe  with  its  spraying  nozzle. 

Gasoline  is  supplied  from  an  elevated  tank  or  under  artificial  pressure 
to   the   float   chamber   A    (Fig.   67),   in   which   the    liquid    is    maintained 


FIG.   67. — CARBURETOR  WITH   SUPPLEMENTARY   AIR  VALVE. 

at  exactly  a  constant  level,  independent  of  demand,  through  the  auto- 
matic action  of  the  float  B  and  needle  valve  C,  which  act  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  does  the  ball  cock  in  the  domestic  bathroom  tank.  The 
vaporizing  chamber  D  is  usually  a  vertical  passage  generally  of  a  more 
or  less  double  conical  section  and  cast  in  one  with  the  float  chamber.  Its 
upper  end  E  is  connected  to  the  suction  pipe  which  leads  to  the  inlet 
port  of  the  engine.  From  the  lower  portion  of  the  float  chamber  a 
small  pipe  F  leads  into  the  vaporizing  chamber,  and,  turning,  rises  ver- 
tically in  its  centre  and  forms  the  standpipe  G.  This  pipe  has  a  very 
small  bore,  and  supplies  the  gasoline  for  the  mixture.  Its  upper  end  is 
at  nearly  the  same  horizontal  level  as  the  liquid  in  the  float  chamber, 
so  that  gasoline  is  always  ready  to  flow  from  it.  The  form  of  the  out- 
let of  the  standpipe  is  such  that  when  gasoline  is  emitted  it  will  be 
broken  into  fine  spray. 

98 


Near  its  lower  end  the  vaporizing  chamber  is  usually  contracted  for 
an  important  reason,  to  be  described  later,  and  near  its  upper  end  is 
located  a  valve,  called  the  throttle  H,  which  serves  to  regulate  the  amount 
of  mixture  which  goes  to  the  engine.  In  the  pipe  which  leads  from 
the  float  chamber  to  the  spraying  nozzle  L  is  usually  a  needle  valve  I 
which  serves  to  regulate  the  supply  of  gasoline. 

The  action  of  such  a  carburetor  is  as  follows :  During  the  suction 
stroke  of  the  piston  a  partial  vacuum  is  created  within  the  cylinder,  and,  as 
the  inlet  valve  is  opened,  this  suction  causes  air  to  enter  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  vaporizing  chamber  or  through  an  air  pipe  connected  thereto.  This 
air  has  to  pass  the  contraction  at  K  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  chamber 
which  has  already  been  referred  to,  and  is  thereby  somewhat  throttled 
or  rarefied,  so  that  there  is  a  slight  degree  of  vacuum  formed  in  the 
space  around  the  spraying  nozzle.  Since  the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  the 
float  chamber  has  upon  it  the  full  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  gasoline 
is  energetically  squirted  through  the  spraying  nozzle,  in  the  form  of  a 
mist,  to  fill  the  partial  vacuum.  This  spray  becomes  intimately  mingled 
with  the  air,  and  the  mixture  passes  the  throttle  H  and  thence  through 
the  intake  pipe  and  valve  to  the  cylinder. 

When  the  needle  valve  regulating  the  gasoline  supply  is  correctly  set, 
the  entering  air  will  be  nearly  uniformly  impregnated  with  such  a  pro- 
portion of  gasoline  as  to  be  perfectly  explosive,  no  matter  whether  the 
engine  is  drawing  gas  rapidly  or  slowly;  for  if  it  is  not  drawing  mix- 
ture very  rapidly  the  vacuum  produced  around  the  standpipe  will  be 
very  slight,  and  the  flow  of  liquid  through  the  spraying  nozzle  will 
accordingly  be  quite  moderate,  while  if  a  high  rate  of  gas  supply  is 
demanded,  the  entering  air  will  be  considerably  contracted,  quite  a  strong 
vacuum  will  be  formed,  and  gasoline  will  be  sprayed  energetically. 

In  point  of  fact,  however,  this  inherent  self  regulating  property  of 
a  carburetor  of  this  kind  is  not  complete,  and  there  is  a  tendency  for 
mixtures  containing  too  much  gasoline  to  be  produced  when  the  demand 
for  gas  is  great.  A  carburetor  unprovided  with  any  means  for  rectifying 
this  tendency  is  called  a  simple  carburetor,  and  a  carburetor  provided 
with  means  for  its  correction  is  called  "automatic." 

This  means  of  automatic  correction  of  the  quality  of  gas  furnished  is 
known  as  the  auxiliary  air  valve  and  may  take  the  form  of  a  spring 
closed  poppet  valve  such  as  shown  at  M.  When  the  demand  for  gas  is 
small,  sufficient  air  for  the  mixture  will  enter  at  K  and  the  vacuum  at 
D  will  be  insufficient  to  unseat  the  poppet  valve  M,  against  the  pressure 
of  the  spring.  When  the  demand  for  gas  becomes  considerable,  so  great, 
in  fact,  that  not  enough  air  would  be  furnished  through  K  in  proportion 
to  the  gasoline  sprayed,  the  vacuum  becomes  sufficient  to  unseat  the 
poppet  valve  and  a  sufficient  amount  of  auxiliary  air  enters  through  N 
to  meet  the  demand  and  maintain  the  quality  of  the  mixture.  With  a 
further  increase  of  gas  demand  the  poppet  valve  opens  still  further,  its 
rate  of  opening  with  increased  gas  demand  being  so  adjusted  by  increas- 
ing or  decreasing  its  spring  tension  as  to  secure  the  desired  quality  of 
gas  throughout  the  range  of  throttle  opening  and  speed  variation  of  the 
motor.  Various  arrangements  of  the  automatic  air  supply  are  resorted 
to  in  different  carburetors,  but  they  all  have  the  same  intent,  that  of 

99 


adding  supplementary  air  to  the  mixture  as  the  gas  demand  increases. 

The  necessity  for  so  doing  is  on  account  of  the  following  considerations : 

DEPENDENCE  OF  MIXTURE  ON  SUCTION. 

The  action  of  a  gasoline  jet  comes  under  the  laws  of  discharge  from 
orifices  and  the  admission  of  air  under  the  laws  of  the  flow  of  gases 
in  pipes.  The  force  which  causes  the  flow  is  the  same  for  both  air  and 
gasoline,  viz.,  the  suction  in  the  inlet  pipe.  The  rate  of  discharge  from 
an  orifice  is  always  proportional  to  the  square  root  of  the  pressure  pro- 
ducing it,  and  the  velocity  of  air  at  any  point  in  a  pipe  one  end  of  which 
is  in  communication  with  the  atmosphere  is  also  proportional  to  the  square 
root  of  the  suction  at  this  point.  Both  of  the  components  of  the  com- 
bustible mixture  seem  therefore  to  vary  with  the  suction  in  the  same 
proportion,  viz.,  as  the  square  root  of  the  suction.  However,  the  flow 
of  gases  in  pipes  is  a  rather  complex  phenomenon,  and  the  velocity  of 
flow  past  any  given  point  is  no  measure  of  the  actual  rate  of  flow  or  the 
amount  of  gas  or  air  passing  this  point  in  unit  time,  because  the  air 
in  its  progress  through  the  pipe  expands,  and  the  velocity  increases  from 
point  to  point  along  the  pipe.  The  higher  the  speed  of  the  air  the  less 
its  density,  and  consequently  the  actual  rate  of  flow  of  air  varies  less 
rapidly  than  the  square  root  of  the  suction.  In  other  words,  while  the 
speed  of  the  air  past  the  spray  nozzle  and  the  speed  of  gasoline  flow 
from  the  nozzle  are  always  proportional,  the  density  of  the  air  decreases 
as  the  velocity  increases,  and  hence  the  quantity  of  air  by  weight  varies 
less  rapidly  than  the  quantity  of  gasoline. 

There  is  a  second  reason  why  the  feeds  of  air  and  gasoline  do  not 
vary  in  the  same  proportion  when  the  suction  varies,  and  that  is  that 
an  initial  suction  is  required  to  lift  the  gasoline  to  the  mouth  of  the 
nozzle,  before  spraying  can  begin  at  all,  the  normal  level  of  the  gasoline 
in  the  nozzle  being  kept  at  some  distance  below  the  mouth.  Only  the 
slightest  suction  is  required  to  draw  air  through  the  inlet  pipe,  but 
there  is  a  certain  minimum  suction  below  which  no  gasoline  will  be  fed, 
and  this  is  the  reason  why  when  the  engine  is  started  by  turning  it  over 
by  hand,  when  the  suction  is  naturally  very  weak,  it  is  necessary  to  first 
"flood"  the  carburetor  by  holding  down  the  float.  The  effect  of  the 
initial  suction  required  to  raise  the  gasoline  to  the  mouth  of  the  nozzle 
on  the  proportions  of  the  mixture  for  different  intensities  of  suction  is 
well  shown  by  the  following  consideration.  Taking  no  account  of  the 
variation  in  density  of  the  air  passing  the  nozzle,  the  flow  of  air  is  pro- 
portional to  the  square  root  of  the  suction,  and  the  flow  of  gasoline  to 
the  square  root  of  the  suction  minus  the  pressure  required  to  lift  the 
gasoline  to  the  mouth  of  the  nozzle.  The  ratio  of  gasoline  to  air  varies 
therefore  as  the  square  root  of  the  quotient  of  the  suction  minus  a  con- 
stant, by  the  suction,  and  this  value  naturally  increases  as  the  suction 
increases ;  hence  the  mixture  becomes  richer  the  greater  the  suction. 

The  auxiliary  air  valve  instead  of  being  under  the  influence  of  a 
single  spring,  as  in  Fig.  67,  may  be  controlled  by  two  springs  which  act 
successively — a  weak  spring  which  resists  the  first  motion  of  the  valve 
that  takes  place  at  relatively  low  gas  demands,  and  a  stronger  spring  which 
comes  into  action  during  the  greatest  gas  demands.  This  arrangement 
is  adopted  in  order  to  secure  more  perfect  compensation. 


FLOATING  BALL  AIR  VALVE. 

Instead  of  employing  a  spring  controlled  poppet  valve  for  this  pur- 
pose, it  is  becoming  quite  common  to  make  use  of  a  series  of  balls  of 
graduated  diameter  held  to  their  seats  by  gravity.  As  more  auxiliary 
air  is  required  for  the  mixture,  the  increased  suction  tends  to  raise  these 
balls  and  to  allow  of  the  admission  of  air  between  the  balls  and  their 
seats.  The  sizes  of  the  balls  are  so  chosen  that  they  rise  from  their 
seats  in  such  numbers  and  in  such  order  that  approximately  the  correct 
amount  of  additional  air  is  admitted.  This  arrangement  permits  of  the 
elimination  of  springs  and  their  adjustments. 
VENTUEI  TUBE. 

It  is  becoming  quite  common  to  make  the  cross  section  of  the  vaporizing 
chamber  that  of  the  frustra  of  two  cones,  with  their  smaller  ends  joined 
together,  the  jet  being  located  at  or  near  the  contraction  thus  formed. 
A  vaporizing  chamber  of  this  form  is  known  as  a  Venturi  tube,  and  its 
action  is  such  as  to  tend  toward  the  more  correct  proportioning  of  the 
fuel  and  air  which  go  to  form  the  mixture.  The  vaporizing  chamber 
shown  in  Fig.  67  is  somewhat  of  this  form. 

PREHEATING  THE  CHARGE. 

In  order  sufficiently  to  vaporize  the  rather  heavy  grade  of  gasoline 
now  used  so  that  it  shall  enter  the  cylinder  in  a  truly  vaporous  condi- 
tion with  the  air  rather  than  in  the  state  of  minute  liquid  particles  borne 
in  the  air  stream,  it  has  become  necessary  to  provide  means  for  furnishing 
artificial  heat  to  the  carburetor.  This  is  accomplished  in  two  ways : 
(i)  By  taking  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  air  for  the  mixture  in  a  heated 
condition  by  gathering  it  from  a  point  where  it  has  been  warmed  by  the 
exhaust  pipe,  and  (2)  by  surrounding  the  vaporizing  chamber  of  the 
carburetor  with  a-  jacket  through  which  circulates  the  hot  water  from 
the  radiator.  In  method  (i)  the  warmed  air  possesses  a  greater  capacity 
for  gasoline  than  does  cold  air,  and  in  method  (2)  the  heat  entering 
the  vaporizing  chamber  through  its  walls  helps  supply  the  large  call  for 
heat  required  to  supply  the  latent 
heat  of  vaporization  of  the  evapo- 
rating fuel.  A  great  proportion  of 
the  carburetors  now  in  use  are  fitted 
with  some  means  of  heating  them, 
the  water  jacket  being  the  most  ap- 
proved method.  Artificial  heat  is 
more  necessary  in  cold  than  in 
warm  weather,  and  means  are  often 
provided  for  cutting  off  the  heat 
supply  when  the  air  temperatures 
are  high. 

Another  expedient  resorted  to 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  com- 
plete evaporation  of  the  gasoline  is 
that  of  mechanical  agitation  of  the 
mixture. 

Fig.  67  A  represents  the  "Homo," 


THE    HORSELESS    »GE 


FIG.  6;A.— "HOMO"  FUEL  MIXER. 


a  mechanical  device  intended  to 
render  more  homogeneous  the 
mixture  furnished  an  engine.  It 
consists  of  a  fan,  placed  in  a 
chamber,  which  is  interposed  be- 
tween the  carburetor  and  the  in- 
take pipe.  This  fan  is  mounted 
on  ball  bearings,  and  is  caused  to 
rotate  rapidly  by  the  incoming  gas 
stream.-  As  it  does  so  it  subjects 
the  mixture  to  energetic  agitation, 
which  is  claimed  to  result  in  a 
breaking  up  and  vaporization  of 
any  entrained  gasoline,  and  in  an 
improvement  in  the  vaporous  na- 
ture of  the  mixture. 

The  fan  carries  a  network 
of  galvanized  iron  wire,  which 
is  claimed  to  be  essential  to 
the  breaking  up  of  the  gasoline 
drops. 
VAPORIZING  TUBE  CARBURETOR. 

In  order  that  the  supply  of 
artificial  heat  shall  prove  effective 
in  bringing  about  complete  vapori- 
zation, the  warmed  surfaces  should 
be  of  large  extent,  and  a  form  of 
carburetor  known  as  the  "vapor- 
izing tube"  type  is  being  intro- 
duced to  embody  this  idea. 

Fig.  68.  Here  F  is  the  float 
chamber,  N  the  standpipe,  T  is  a 
hot  water  jacket  of  considerable 
length  (here  shown  cut  off)  which 
encloses  the  long  vaporizing  tube 
(shown  within  it).  The  auxiliary 

air  is  admitted  at  the  upper  end  of  the  vaporizing  tube,  which  carries  a 
nearly  saturated  mixture  that  is  in  contact  with  the  hot  walls  of  the 
jacket  for  a  considerable  distance. 

Up  to  this  point  we  have  spoken  only  of  the  automatic  carburetor  in 
which  the  necessary  auxiliary  air  is  admitted  by  the  automatic  unseating 
of  a  poppet  valve  or  a  series  of  balls. 

THE"  MECHANICAL  CARBURETOR. 

However,  the  mechanical  carburetor,  so  called,  is  in  quite  extensive 
use.  In  this  type  the  throttle  valve  is  mechanically  connected  by  means  of 
a  suitable  adjustable  linkage,  with  a  valve  controlling  the  air  supply  so 
that  as  the  gas  demand  increases  with  the  opening  of  the  throttle,  the 
amount  of  air  admitted  is  also  increased.  (Fig.  69.)  By  a  careful  propor- 
tioning of  the  parts  and  a  proper  adjustment  thereof  the  mixture  furnished 
by  such  a  carburetor  may  be  made  quite  satisfactory. 


• 


FIG.   68. — VAPORIZING   TUBE 
CARBURETOR. 


102 


FIG.   69. — MECHANICALLY   CONTROLLED   CARBURETOR    (FRANKLIN). 


VARYING     THE     GASOLINE 
SUPPLY  AUTOMATICALLY. 

Instead  of  relying  en- 
tirely upon  the  expedient 
of  admitting  additional  air 
as  the  gas  demand  in- 
creases, and  thus  securing 
a  uniform  mixture,  some 
carburetors  are  fitted  with 
a  mechanical  arrangement 
actuated  by  the  throttle 
mechanism  which  auto- 
matically increases  the 
amount  of  gasoline  passing 
the  spraying  nozzle  as  the 
gas  demand  increases. 
(Fig.  70.) 

Here  the  throttle  valve 
arm  carries  a  flexible 
metal  segmental  track  A, 
which  can  be  adjusted 
more  or  less  in  a  direc- 
tion in  and  out  of  the 
plane  of  the  paper  by 
means  of  the  adjusting 
cams  C  C  so  as  to  have  a  FIG.  70. — SCHEBLER  CARBURETOR  WITH  AUTO- 
curved  profile.  Upon  this  MATICALLY  VARIED  GASOLINE  SUPPLY. 


103 


track  runs  the  roller  B,  the  movement  of  which,  in  a  direction  away  from 
or  toward  the  observer,  serves  to  change  the  opening  of  the  gasoline 
needle  valve  at  various  portions  of  the  throttle  range,  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  make  the  mixture  meet  the  requirements. 

MULTIPLE  JET  CARBURETORS. 
It  is  often  a  very  difficult  matter  to  secure,  at  all  times,  a  suitable 


FIG.  71.— DOUBLE  JET  CARBURETOR   (STEARNS). 

A,  float  chamber;  B,  float  valve;  C,  flooding  valve;  D,  bell  crank  for  operating 
same;  E,  pull  rod;  F,  auxiliary  spray  nozzle;  G,  main  spray  nozzle;  H,  valve  at  inlet 
to  auxiliary  spray  chamber;  I  J  M,  throttle  valve;  N,  valve  at  inlet  to  main  spray 
chamber;  L,  bell  crank  for  operating  throttle;  K,  rod  transmitting  motion  of  same; 
O,  outlet  of  carburetor. 


mixture  for  large  multicylinder  engines  capable  of  very  great  variations 
in  speed. 

In  such  cases  instead  of  employing  a  single  gasoline  jet  two  or 
three  jets  may  be  used,  the  jets  being  brought  into  action  successively 
as  the  gas  demand  is  increased.  At  very  low  throttle  openings  but  one 
jet  is  active,  and  this  may  be  so  adjusted  that  a  sufficiently  rich  mixture 

104 


to  operate  the  engine  at  a  very  low  speed,  and  to  render  Starting  easy,  may 
be  secured.  As  the  engine  speed  increases  the  second  and,  in  some  cases,  a 
third  jet  are  also  brought  into  action,  thus  furnishing  the  additional  fuel 
required  in  more  exact  amounts  than  can  be  secured  if  one  jet  only,  with 
its  single  adjustment,  is  depended  upon.  The  method  of  successively 
bringing  the  jets  into  action  is  to  successively  uncover  them  and  thus 
expose  them  to  the  engine  suction.  This  may  be  done  by  the  movements 
of  shutters  controlled  by  the  throttle  action,  by  the  automatic  lifting  of 
shutters  or  by  other  equivalent  means. 


Carburetor  Troubles  and  Their   Remedies. 

(ALBERT   L.    CLOUGH.) 

The  earburetor,  when  well  adapted  to  the  motor  which  it  is  to  supply, 
and  given  a  correct  initial  adjustment,  is  one  of  the  least  troublesome 
elements  of  the  automobile  mechanism.  Ordinarily  it  will  perform  its 
service  continuously  and  uniformly  for  long  periods  of  time  without 
requiring  attention,  and  it  is  too  often  blamed  for  faults  in  engine  opera- 
tion which  should  be  attributed  to  defects  in  the  ignition  system.  In 
searching  for  the  cause  of  irregularity  of  action  in  an  automobile  motor, 
the  sparking  arrangements  may  generally  be  profitably  scrutinized  with 
the  utmost  care  before  investigation  proceeds  to  the  carburetor.  Of  course, 
there  are  certain  symptoms  which  point  at  once  to  carburetor  trouble,  such 
as  black  smoke  in  the  exhaust,  or  fouled  plugs,  but  in  cases  where  there 
is  no  obvious  sign,  such  as  the  above,  the  carburetor  may  wait  for  its 
inspection  until  all  electrical  features  have  been  most  minutely  examined. 
Faithful  as  the  carburetor  usually  is  in  the  performance  of  its  prescribed 
duty,  there  are  certain  derangements  to  which  it  is  subject,  the  same  as 
with  all  mechanisms. 

GASOLINE   LEAKS. 

Every  user  of  an  automobile  should  be  very  watchful  concerning  the 
possible  development  of  gasoline  leaks  on  his  car,  and  an  occasional  glance 
under  the  machine,  when  it  is  at  rest,  with  the  engine  stopped  and  the 
gasoline  still  turned  on,  may  prove  profitable.  Gasoline  leaks  are  to  be 
avoided  not  only  on  account  of  the  loss  of  valuable  fuel,  but  on  account 
of  the  fire  danger  which  they  involve.  A  glance  under  the  supply  tank 
will  at  once  show  whether  it  has  become  leaky,  through  the  opening  of 
its  seams,  by  jarring,  or  whether  the  union  connecting  the  gasoline  pipe 
to  the  tank  is  leaking  or  not.  The  tanks  of  some  low  grade  machines 
are  made  of  galvanized  iron.  When  this  is  the  case  the  drops  of  water 
which  are  almost  inevitably  taken  in  with  the  fuel  remain  upon  the  tank 
bottom  and  finally  rust  it  through.  When  a  leak  due  to  this  cause  has 
developed  it  is  practically  no  use  to  solder  it,  as  other  holes  will  appear 
in  a  few  days.  The  tank  might  as  well  be  discarded  and  one  strongly 
made  from  heavy  gauge  copper  substituted  for  it. 
How  TO  PREVENT  LEAKS. 

The  gasoline  pipe  may  well  be  examined  for  leaks,  as  mav  be  the  union 
which  connects  it  to  the  carburetor  float  chamber.  This  pipe  should  have 
sufficient  slack  in  it  to  prevent  its  being  strained  under  any  conditions,  and 

105 


may  well  comprise  a  coil,  of  one  or  two  turns,  to  render  it  flexible  under 
the  strains  of  service.  It  should  not  be  so  placed  as  to  come  in  contact 
with  any  other  part  of  the  mechanism  which  might  abrade  and  in  time 
nick  it,  so  as  to  cause  it  to  leak.  If  either  of  its  unions  is  found  to  leak, 
it  should  be  disconnected,  the  ground  surfaces  wiped  perfectly  clean  and 
given  a  coating  of  white  soap,  which  will  be  found  to  stop  light  leaks.  If, 
however,  this  expedient  is  ineffectual,  the  bearing  surface  will  have  to  be 
ground  in  with  fine  emery  and  rouge  or  whiting,  or  a  new  union  supplied. 
The  soldered  connections  of  the  gasoline  pipe  to  its  unions  will  bear 
watching  from  time  to  time. 

REPAIR   OF   LEAKY    PIPES. 

A  leaking  or  broken  gasoline  pipe  is  a  rather  annoying  accident  to  be 
met  with  on  the  road,  but  it  may  be  temporarily  repaired  by  cutting  out 
the  leaky  portion  and  joining  the  severed  ends  by  means  of  a  short  length 
of  rubber  tubing  of  suitable  size,  the  connecting  ends  of  the  rubber  being 
held  by  wire  winding  to  their  respective  ends  of  the  copper  pipe.  In  the 
absence  of  a  soldering  iron  for  making  a  permanent  repair,  or  of  rubber 
tubing,  one  may  be  able  to  drive  a  few  miles  with  the  following  make- 
shift: Take  narrow  strips  of  cloth,  torn  from  a  handkerchief,  soap  them 
well  and  wind  tightly  over  the  junction  of  the  broken  ends,  which  should 
first  have  been  filed  off  squarely;  then  take  adhesive  tape  and  wind  firmly 
over  the  cloth,  beginning  at  quite  a  distance  beyond  it  in  each  direction. 
PUNCTURED  FLOATS. 

When  the  car  has  been  at  rest  for  a  short  time  with  the  gasoline  left 
turned  on,  there  should  be  no  drip  from  the  carburetor.  If  it  is  found 
that  gasoline  is  still  dripping  from  a  float  feed  carburetor,  it  requires 
attention.  Some  manufacturers  are  now  using  cork  for  the  material  of 
their  floats,  as  being  more  reliable  than  the  hollow  metal  ones.  These 
latter  sometimes  develop  minute  leaks,  partially  fill  with  liquid,  and  lose  so 
much  of  their  buoyancy  that  the  gasoline  level  in  the  float  chamber  is  main- 
tained above  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  spraying  standpipe.  This  permits 
a  constant  loss  of  fuel  when  the  car  is  standing.  The  presence  of  liquid 
inside  a  metal  float  may  at  once  be  detected  by  the  sound  when  it  is 
shaken,  but  the  leak  through  which  it  entered  is  usually  so  minute  that 
the  liquid  cannot  escape  through  it,  and  is  too  small  to  be  detected  by  the 
eye.  If  the  float  is  heated  slightly,  so  as  to  partially  vaporize  the  liquid 
within  it,  and  the  flame  of  a  match  is  passed  over  the  float's  surface,  the 
hole  will  be  discovered  by  the  ignition  of  the  issuing  vapor.  After  mark- 
ing the  leak  a  hole  should  be  punched  in  the  float  with  an  awl  to  allow 
of  the  egress  of  the  contained  liquid,  and  both  holes  should  then  be 
carefully  soldered.  Cork  floats,  if  they  become  gasoline  soaked  and  lose 
their  buoyancy,  should  be  dried  out  and  carefully  shellacked. 
IMPERFECT  SEATING  OF  GASOLINE  VALVE. 

If  the  float  is  found  tight  and  in  good  condition  the  cause  of  the  con- 
stant flow  of  fuel  is  probably  the  failure  of  the  needle  valve  to  seat  tightly 
under  the  influence  of  the  float.  Unless  the  carburetor  is  mounted  with 
the  float  chamber  truly  horizontal,  this  is  very  likely  to  happen.  The  leak 
may  usually  be  stopped  by  grinding  this  valve  into  its  seat  with  a  little 
whiting,  or  even  grinding  the  seat  and  valve1  together  without  any  abrasive, 

106 


holding  the  needle  and  seat  in  their  true  relative  positions  and  giving  them 
a  motion  of  rotation  with  moderate  pressure. 

No   FLOW   OF   GASOLINE. 

Sometimes,  instead  of  an  excessive  supply  of  gasoline  passing  the 
carburetor,  little,  if  any,  will  flow,  even  when  the  carburetor  is  flooded  in 
the  accustomed  manner.  It  may  be  that  a  sufficient  quantity  of  impurities 
has  gathered  upon  the  wire  gauze  filter,  which  is  usually  placed  in  the 
supply  orifice  of  the  float  chamber.  This  may  be  opened  to  inspection  by 
freeing  the  union  of  the  gasoline  pipe  to  the  chamber  and  the  gauze  can 
then  be  readily  cleansed.  '  Some  impurity  may  have  worked  its  way 
through  the  gasoline  passages  and  become  lodged  in  the  needle  valve  or 
other  measuring  device  which  allows  the  gasoline  to  reach  the  mixing 
point.  In  this  case  the  needle  should  be  entirely  withdrawn  and  cleaned, 
and  its  seat  flushed  out  by  causing  gasoline  to  run  through  it  freely  upon 
depressing  the  float.  "There  is  no  need  of  losing  the  adjustment  in  doing 
this,  as  after  the  set  screw  which  locks  the  adjustment  is  loosened  the 
needle  may  be  turned  down  to  a  completely  closed  condition  and  the 
number  of  turns  required  may  be  noted.  This  will  give  the  necessary 
data  to  make  it  easy  to  effect  the  old  setting  when  the  parts  are  put 
together.  In  order  to  avoid  the  possibility  of  foreign  matter  finding  its 
way  into  the  passages  of  the  carburetor,  it  is  well  to  occasionally  draw 
off  the  float  chamber  through  the  plug  in  the  bottom,  which  is  always 
provided.  By  depressing  the  float  when  the  plug  is  out,  gasoline  may  be 
flushed  through  the  chamber,  carrying  with  it  all  remaining  sediment. 
GASOLINE  SHOULD  BE  STRAINED. 

In  regard  to  this  matter  of  impurities  in  gasoline,  it  may  be  said  that 
all  trouble  arising  from  them  may  be  averted  by  the  use  of  a  chamois 
filter  in  the  funnel  when  the  tank  is  filled.  This  will  stop  not  only  solid 
particles,  but  will  successfully  exclude  all  water  which  the  gasoline  may 
contain.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  talk  about  gasoline  containing  water, 
as  if  the  two  liquids  were  capable  of  being  mixed,  so  that  the  water 
became  impossible  of  detection  and  likely  to  affect  the  running  of  the 
motor  in  some  obscure  manner.  Water,  as  the  well  informed  motorist 
knows,  will  no  more  mix  with  gasoline  than  it  will  with  oil,  and  if  any 
water  is  present  in  a  vessel  of  gasoline  it  will  be  perfectly  apparent  in  the 
form  of  globules  collected  on  the  bottom.  If  the  gasoline  tank  be  filled 
from  a  can  having  a  faucet,  there  will  be  no  danger  of  water  escaping 
from  the  filling  vessel  with  the  gasoline,  as  the  former  will  seek  the  bottom 
of  the  can  below  the  level  of  the  faucet.  If  the  tank  is  filled  from  a 
measure,  the  water,  if  any,  is  readily  seen  on  the  bottom,  but  if  the  gaso- 
line is  poured  in  from  a  can  which  has  no  faucet,  the  water,  if  present,  is 
likely  to  be  emptied  out  with  the  gasoline,  but  will  be  caught  by  the  chamois 
strainer  if  one  be  used.  Fine  solid  particles  or  dissolved  gummy  sub- 
stances are  the  impurities  in  gasoline  which  are  most  difficult  to  guard 
against.  Water  is  easily  avoided,  as  it  is  so  easily  detected.  Some  gaso- 
line tanks  are  fitted  with  a  settling  pocket,  which  forms  the  lowest  point 
of  the  tank.  Water  and  solid  particles  are  supposed  to  gravitate  into  this, 
and  it  should  be  drawn  off  occasionally  by  means  provided  therefor.  The 
gasoline  outlet  from  the  tank  is  sometimes  fitted  with  a  strainer,  and  occa- 
sionally this  should  be  cleaned  to  prevent  its  becoming  clogged. 

107 


FREEZING   OF    CARBURETOR. 

When  water  is  allowed  (through  carelessness)  to  enter  the  float  cham- 
ber, it  creates  special  trouble  in  cold  weather.  It  will  settle  into  the 
recess  in  the  bottom  which  forms  the  guide  of  the  float  stem  and  when  it 
freezes  will  prevent  the  action  of  the  float.  If  it  enters  the  passage  leading 
to  the  jet  it  will  stop  it  up  completely  when  it  congeals,  as  it  may  readily 
do  under  favorable  conditions.  Most  carburetors  take  in  their  air  through 
some  sort  of  a  strainer,  with  the  intention  of  excluding  from  the  engine 
particles  of  dust  and  other  materials.  Sometimes  this  strainer  is  a  fine 
wire  gauze,  and  sometimes  it  is  a  loosely  woven  fabric.  These  strainers 
need  cleaning  occasionally  so  that  the  air  may  not  be  unduly  throttled. 
A  fabric  strainer  may  be  washed  in  gasoline  and  all  foreign  material  thus 
removed. 

When  a  carburetor  is  rather  small  for  the  gas  which  it  has  to  supply, 
it  becomes  very  cold  while  in  operation,  as  the  heat  called  for  to  effect  the 
evaporation  of  the  gasoline  is  more  than  that  available  from  the  entering 
air  or  than  can  be  secured  through  the  metal  of  the  carburetor  from  the 
outside  air  by  conduction.  The  metal  of  the  carburetor  is  very  often 
reduced  in  temperature  to  a  point  below  the  dew  point  of  the  surrounding 
air  and  a  large  amount  of  water  condenses  upon  it.  Under  extreme  con- 
ditions the  moisture  is  deposited  in  the  form  of  white  frost,  which  evi- 
dences a  temperature  within  the  carburetor  low  enough  to  preclude  the 
successful  use  of  low  test  fuel  and  possibly  to  affect  the  intimacy  of  the 
resulting  mixture  even  when  high  test  gasoline  is  employed.  If  any  water 
is  present  in  the  float  chamber,  it  will  be  likely  to  freeze  and  disturb  the 
action  of  the  carburetor. 

The  methods  of  supplying  artificial  heat  have  been  described  in  an 
earlier  portion  of  this  chapter,  and  should  be  resorted  to  when  more  heat 
appears  to  be  required. 

ADJUSTMENT. 

As  to  the  matter  of  adjustment,  only  general  statements  can  be  made, 
as  there  is  so  great  a  variety  of  carburetors  on  the  market.  One  adjust- 
ment, however,  and  the  most  important  one,  is  common  to  them  all, 
namely,  that  of  the  needle  valve  which  regulates  the  flow  of  fuel  to  the 
spraying  jet.  Carburetors  which  possess  automatic  air  valves  or  air  valves 
which  are  interconnected  with  the  gasoline  valve  vary  in  their  individual 
arrangements  so  widely  that  the  following  of  the  directions  which  accom- 
pany them  is  the  only  practical  course.  The  main  point  in  the  handling  of 
almost  any  carburetor  is  this  adjustment  of  the  gasoline  supply.  A  good 
method  to  effect  it  is  as  follows:  Be  sure  that  the  ignition  apparatus  is 
in  perfect  order.  Open  the  muffler,  or,  still  better,  disconnect  it,  so  that 
the  exhaust  flame  may  be  seen.  See  that  the  spark  is  set  not  earlier  than 
the  dead  centre  and  that  the  throttle  is  open  a  little  and,  with  the  gasoline 
adjustment  open  a  fraction  of  a  turn,  the  gasoline  supply  valve  open  and 
the  carburetor  flooded ;  have  the  engine  cranked  by  another  person  while 
the  gasoline  adjustment  is  being  opened  very  gradually.  When  explosions 
commence  and  the  engine  is  fairly  running,  the  adjustment  should  be  so 
regulated  that  the  engine  shall  give  an  exhaust  flame  of  a  deep,  rich  blue 
color.  If  its  color  is  a  lurid  red,  accompanied  by  black  smoke,  it  is  evi- 
dence that  too  much  gasoline  is  being  fed,  while  if  the  exhaust  flame  is 

108 


small  and  pale— almost  a  yellowish  green— there  is  an  excess  of  air.  The 
sound  of  the  exhaust  will  also  give  the  practiced  ear  some  idea  of  the 
quality  of  the  mixture.  Where  the  charge  is  too  rich  the  'Sound  is  more 
like  a  puff  than  like  a  detonation ;  when  too  weak,  it  is  sharp,  but  with  a 
hollow,  low  tone,  and  when  the  mixture  is  correct  and  the  exhaust  un- 
muffled,  the  sound  has  the  peculiar  indescribably  sharp  "smacking"  sound 
of  beating  together  two  pieces  of  wood. 

ADJUSTMENT   OF   AUTOMATIC   CARBURETORS. 

If  -the  gasoline  adjustment  is  made  with  a  nearly  closed  throttle  the 
latter  should  now  be  opened  widely.  With  an  "automatic"  carburetor  the 
mixture  should  still  prove  correct  at  this  higher  speed,  but  it  may  be 
actually  too  rich,  in  which  case  provision  for  the  entrance  of  more  air 
through  the  automatic  valve  or  mechanically  controlled  auxiliary  inlet 
should  be  made.  Adjustment  should  not  be  regarded  as  perfect  until  a 
good  mixture  is  obtained  at  all  degrees  of  throttling,  as  judged  by  the 
character  of  the  exhaust  flame  and  the  activity  of  the  engine.  With  many 
carburetors  which  are  not  fitted  with  automatic  air  supply,  the  best  that 
can  be  done  is  to  secure  such  an  adjustment  as  wil]  give  a  perfect  mixture 
at  full  throttle  opening,  even  though  it  is  slightly  defective  under  nearly 
closed  throttle.  Making  the  carburetor  adjustment  with  the  engine  run- 
ning light  is  far  from  satisfactory.  With  full  throttle  opening  the  motor 
speeds  up  to  a  rather  distressing  extent,  even  when  the  spark  is  somewhat 
retarded,  and  this  racing  is  not  particularly  good  for  it.  The  running 
condition  during  which  it  is  most  imperatively  desirable  that  the  mixture 
should  be  perfect  is  when  the  engine  is  operating  under  fully  opened 
throttle  and  heavily  loaded,  as  when  climbing  a  considerable  grade  on  the 
high  gear.  Also,  when  the  engine  is  racing  it  is  very  difficult  to  detect 
a  single  missed  explosion,  and  one  is  always  in  doubt  after  a  .test  of  a 
motor  running  light  whether  it  will  do  good  work  at  low  speeds. 
ADJUSTMENT  FOR  FULL  POWER. 

If  the  motor  is  not  too  large  this  difficulty  may  be  met  by  arranging 
a  crude  brake,  formed  of  a  piece  of  board  or  plank  held  forcibly  in  contact 
with  the  face  of  the  flywheel.  When  this  brake  is  in  application  the  motor 
speed  may  be  kept  very  moderate,  even  under  full  throttle,  and  with  the 
usual  spark  advance,  and  conditions  for  adjusting  the  carburetor  may  thus 
be  realized  which  somewhat  approximate  to  practice.  The  engine  is  not 
so  badly  "racked"  when  running  under  this  brake  control,  missed  explo- 
sions are  easily  detected  at  the  lowered  speed  and  some  idea  can  be  gained 
as  to  whether  the  motor  is  "pulling  well."  Instead  of  resorting  to  a 
makeshift  brake  of  this  kind  the  car  may  be  securely  jacked  up,  the  high 
gear  thrown  in  and  the  brakes  applied  sufficiently  to  slow  the  motor  to  a 
moderate  speed.  This  practice  is  only  recommended  for  very  short  trials, 
however. 

One  thing  which  should  be  remembered :  That  it  is  more  essential  to 
have  a  carburetor  so  adjusted  as  to  enable  its  motor  to  pull  hard  on  low 
speeds  and  under  severe  loads  than  to  race  madly  when  light. 

Some  idea  of  the  correctness  of  adjustment  may  be  gained  by  run- 
ning the  motor  with  nearly  closed  throttle  and  spark  not  earlier  than  the 
centre,  and  then  suddenly  opening  the  throttle,  closing  it  again  almost 
immediately.  If  the  speed  of  the  motor  "picks  up"  instantly  and  rapidly, 

109 


and  there  is  no  choking,  missed  explosions  or  popping  back,  it  is  likely 
that  a  usable  adjustment  has  been  attained;  but  one  can  never  be  sure 
of  this  until  the  car  is  tested  out  upon  the  road  under  various  conditions 
of  grade  and  speed. 

The  following  additional  suggestions,  part  of  which  are  due  to  Frank 
S.  Hanchett,  may  be  found  useful: 

If  the  ignition  system  is  shown  to  be  in  working  condition,  the  trouble 
is  almost  certain  to  be  with  the  carbureting  system.  The  engine  receives 
either  too  rich  a  charge,  too  poor  a  charge  or  no  charge  at  all. 

If  the  charge  is  too  rich,  continuous  cranking  will  produce  an  occa- 
sional weak  explosion,  and  such  an  explosion  will  be  followed  by  a  cloud 
of  black  smoke  emitted  from  the  muffler,  which  is  a  positive  indication' 
of  too  rich  a  mixture.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  mixture  is  too  poor  in 
gasoline  vapor,  continued  cranking  is  likely  to  produce  no  result  whatever. 
In  order  to  make  sure  of  the  cause  of  the  trouble  it  is  necessary  to  intro- 
duce gasoline  into  the  cylinder  through  some  other  than  the  regular 
channel,  and  this  is  probably  best  accomplished  by  holding  a  rag  saturated 
with  gasoline  over  the  opening  of  the  air  inlet  to  the  carburetor.  Let 
one  man  hold  the  rag  while  another  does  the  cranking,  and  if  poor  mix- 
ture is  the  sole  cause  of  the  trouble  an  explosion  will  certainly  be  obtained 
in  this  way.  Some  caution  is,  of  course,  necessary  in  handling  the  rag. 
Partly  closing  the  air  inlet  by  the  hand  may  also  sufficiently  enrich  the 
mixture  as  to  cause  an  explosion.  Another  method  of  introducing  gaso- 
line by  hand  is  with  an  oil  squirt  can  through  the  air  inlet,  or  a  hole 
drilled  for  the  purpose  in  the  pipe  between  the  carburetor  and  the  engine, 
and  which  is  afterward  closed  by  a  plug. 

CAUSES  OF  OVERRICH   MIXTURE. 

If  the  symptoms  show  too  rich  a  mixture,  the  problem  is  to  discover 
to  what  the  excess  of  gasoline  in  the  air  is  due.  With  most  carburetors 
it  is  necessary  to  "prime"  the  carburetor  before  starting  the  engine,  which 
operation  consists  either  in  depressing  the  float  by  means  of  a  plunger 
extending  up  through  the  cover  of  the  float  chamber,  to  allow  the  gaso- 
line to  rise  in  the  float  chamber  above  the  level  at  which  it  is  normally 
maintained  by  the  float,  or  in  creating  an  air  pressure  in  the  float  cham- 
ber by  means  of  a  conveniently  located  rubber  bulb,  with  rubber  tube 
connection  to  the  chamber.  The  reason  why  priming  is  necessary  for 
starting  is  that  when  the  engine  is  turned  over  by  hand  the  motion  is 
much  slower,  and  the  suction  consequently  much  weaker  than  under  con- 
ditions of  normal  operation,  and  if  an  approximately  full  charge  of  gaso- 
line is  to  be  drawn  in,  the  level  in  the  spray  nozzle  must  be  higher  than 
normally,  or  some  gasoline  must  be  forced  from  the  spray  nozzle  into 
the  bottom  of  the  mixing  chamber.  Now,  it  is  evident  that  there  may 
be  such  a  thing  as  excessive  priming.  A  novice  operator  may  hold  the 
float  down  until  the  gasoline  runs  out  of  the  spray  nozzle  and  fills  the 
bottom  of  the  mixing  chamber,  especially  if  there  is  no  drain  hole  at 
the  bottom  of  the  chamber,  as  is  the  case  with  some  carburetors.  If  the 
gasoline  is  of  a  light  grade,  and  the  temperature  is  warm,  an  overrich 
charge  will  be  obtained,  and  the  motor  will  be  difficult  to  start.  The 
remedy  is  to  keep  cranking  the  motor  until  the  excess  of  gasoline  is 


pumped  out.  The  trouble  is  a  temporary  one,  and  is  completely  removed 
as  soon  as  the  engine  starts  up. 

A  too  rich  mixture  may  also  be  due  to  throttling  of  the  air  inlet  in 
some  manner.  For  instance,  the  mouth  of  the  air  inlet  tube  is  often 
covered  by  a  wire  screen,  and  this  may  have  become  clogged  with  mud 
or  other  matter — a  trouble  which  is,  however,  not  likely  to  be  encoun- 
tered in  a  modern  car  with  an  apron  underneath — or  the  air  inlet  pipe 
may  accidentally  have  been  turned  in  such  a  manner  that  its  opening  is 
almost  closed  by  some  other  part  of  the  engine  or  car. 

Although  cork  floats  are  not  subject  to  springing  leaks  like  metal  floats, 
they  are  liable  to  a  similar  failing  in  that  the  coating  applied  to  the  cork 
to  render  it  impervious  is  liable  to  wear  off  in  places,  allowing  the  cork 
to  soak  full  of  gasoline,  thus  becoming  much  heavier,  and  consequently, 
losing  in  buoyancy,  giving  rise  to  flooding.  This  trouble  can  be  over- 
come by  taking  the  float  out  of  the  carburetor,  allowing  it  to  dry,  and 
applying  to  it  several  coats  of  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol,  each  of  which 
must  be  quite  dry  before  the  next  is  applied. 

When  the  motor  persistently  refuses  to  start  and  the  ignition  system 
is  shown  to  be  intact,  the  chances  are  that  the  mixture  is  too  poor  or  that 
the  engine  draws  in  nothing  but  pure  air.  One  of  the  most  frequent 
causes  of  this  trouble  is  that  the  driver  has  forgotten  to  fill  the  gasoline 
tank,  or  that  it  has  run  dry  in  the  course  of  the  journey.  An  interruption 
due  to  this  cause  is  often  very  perplexing,  as  the  driver  usually  feels  cer- 
tain that  he  has  attended  to  the  filling  before  starting  or  has  given  orders 
to  have  the  tank  filled.  Many  amusing  incidents  of  long  extended  hunts 
for  the  cause  of  some  apparently  deeply  hidden  trouble  have  occurred 
when  there  was  nothing  at  the  bottom  of  the  whole  thing  but  a  little 
forgetfulness.  As  it  is  easy  to  ascertain  whether  there  is  any  gasoline 
in  the  tank,  it  is  always  advisable  to  do  this  when  the  indications  are 
that  no  explosive  vapor  is  fed  to  the  engine.  The  test  must,  of  course, 
be  of  such  a  nature  that  its  indications  are  conclusive.  For  instance,  it 
is  no  sign  that  there  is  no  lack  of  gasoline  if  some  of  the  fluid  flows 
out  of  a  drain  cock  at  the  bottom  of  the  float  chamber  or  at  any  other 
low  part  of  the  gasoline  system,  because  the  engine  would  "die"  long 
before  the  gasoline  came  down  to  this  level. 

Supposing,  however,  that  the  tank  contains  plenty  of  gasoline,  then  the 
passage  for  the  gasoline  from  the  tank  to  the  spray  nozzle  must  be  blocked 
at  some  point.  It  may  be  that  the  driver  has  simply  forgotten  to  open 
the  valve  in  the  gasoline  pipe  line  if  the  trouble  is  experienced  shortly 
after  starting  out,  but  otherwise  there  is  likely  to  be  some  obstruction 
either  at  the  needle  valves,  at  the  strainer  or  at  the  spray  nozzle.  On 
more  than  one  occasion  a  weak  engine  has  been  made  strong  by  simply 
opening  up  the  vent  hole  in  the  tank  filling  plug  or  drilling  one  where 
none  was  provided,  as  with  no  vent  the  gasoline  is  held  up  by  the  forma- 
tion of  a  partial  vacuum  above  it,  and  will  not  flow  to  the  carburetor 
freely  enough  to  make  all  the  gas  needed.  Another  point  in  the  gravity 
system  is  the  liability  of  stalling  on  a  steep  hill  when  the  gasoline  becomes 
low  in  the  tank,  on  account  of  the  lack  of  fall  from  the  tank  to  the  car- 
buretor, but  the  wily  driver  overcomes  this  by  simply  backing  his  car  up 


the  hill,  thus  putting  the  tank  at  a  higher  level  than  the  carburetor  and 
giving  the  gasoline  the  needed  head. 

In  case  gas  pressure  feed  is  used,  carbon  particles  held  in  suspension 
by  the  burnt  gases  must  be  guarded  against  by  passing  the  gas  through 
a  fine  mesh  strainer.  The  line  strainer  for  the  gasoline  is  usually  placed 
either  at  the  bottom  of  the  carburetor  float  chamber  or  in  a  special  strain- 
ing device.  It  is  always  so  arranged  that  the  straining  screen  can  easily 
be  taken  out  and  cleaned,  and  this  should  be  done  at  intervals. 

A  very  hard  thing  to  discover  sometimes  is  the  cause  of  a  loss  of  pres- 
sure in  the  pressure  feed  style  of  gasoline  delivery,  when  it  arises  from  a 
number  of  small  leaks  in  the  tank  seams  or  air  pipes,  and  where  none 
of  the  leaks  are  large  enough  to  locate  by  sound  or  feeling.  In  such  a 
case  as  this,  if  the  pipes,  seams,  etc.,  are  painted  with  soapsuds  the  leaks 
will  disclose  themselves  by  forming  bubbles  wherever  there  is  an  escape 
of  air.  Occasional  washing  out  of  the  tank  will  assist  in  keeping  the 
carburetor  in  good  working  order  by  removing  the  small  particles  of  scale 
and  dirt  which  accumulate  and  preventing  them  from  getting  down  between 
the  carburetor  float  valve  and  its  seat.  The  location  of  strainers,  if  any, 
in  the  gasoline  pipes  should  be  ascertained  by  the  operator  and  a  fre- 
quent examination  of  the  same  made,  as  their  clogging  will  seriously 
interfere  with  the  efficiency  of  the  flow. 

If  a  stoppage  be  located  in  the  gasoline  pipe,  and  no  means  be  at  hand 
to  take  the  pipe  down,  the  trouble  may  frequently  be  eliminated  by  forcing 
air  through  it  with  the  tire  pump  until  the  air  can  be  heard  bubbling 
through  the  gasoline  in  the  tank.  Simply  holding  the  end  of  the  air  hose 
against  the  delivery  pipe  makes  a  tight  enough  joint  for  this  purpose. 
When  this  is  done  it  is  advisable  to  allow  sufficient  gasoline  to  escape 
from  the  pipe  to  thoroughly  flush  out  the  dirt  which  has  been  loosened  up. 

In  that  type  of  carburetor  where  the  spraying  nozzle  is  placed  in  a 
mixing  chamber  which  is  entirely  separate  from  the  chamber  containing 
the  float  there  will  generally  be  two  or  more  small  holes  found  in  the 
bottom  of  this  mixing  chamber,  placed  there  for  the  purpose  of  allowing 
any  accumulation  of  gasoline  which  might  come  from  a  leaking  float 
valve  to  drain  away.  These  drain  holes  must  be  kept  open ;  otherwise, 
should  the  carburetor  flood  badly  while  standing  the  gasoline  will  find  its 
way  into  the  cylinder  and  crank  case  in  fluid  form,  destroying  all  lubricant 
with  which  it  comes  in  contact  and  laying  the  foundation  for  an  accidental 
explosion. 

A  further  source  of  trouble  may  result  from  the  use  of  gasoline  of 
too  heavy  a  grade,  especially  during  the  winter  months.  The  Baume  test 
of  the  gasoline  changes  one  degree  for  every  eight  degrees  (Fahrenheit) 
change  in  temperature,  so  that  a  gasoline  which  shows  70°  Baurae  at  the 
standard  temperature  of  60°  Fahr.  is  only  65°  at  20°  Fahr.  The  effect 
of  low  grade  gasoline  in  a  carburetor  is  that  the  buoyancy  of  the  float  is 
increased,  and  the  fuel  is  maintained  at  a  lower  level  in  the  spray  nozzle, 
consequently  a  smaller  charge  of  gasoline  is  drawn  into  the  engine.  The 
remedy  consists  in  weighting  the  float  or  in  adjusting  the  float  valve  so  as 
to  shut  off  the  supply  at  a  higher  level  in  the  float  chamber.  If  neither 
of  these  methods  is  practicable  there  remains  the  possibility  of  over- 
coming the  difficulty  by  increasing  the  suction  around  the  spray  nozzle  by 


reducing  the  area  of  the  air  passage  around  the  nozzle  or  of  the 
air  inlet. 

Care  must  be  used  in  keeping  all  joints  of  the  mixture  pipe  between 
the  carburetor  and  engine  cylinder  tight.  Mysterious  cases  of  engine  miss- 
ing fire  can  frequently  be  traced  to  leaks  in  this  pipe,  the  vibration  of 
the  machine  causing  the  leaking  joints  to  open  up,  at  times  to  such  a 
degree  that  enough  air  will  be  drawn  through  them  to  dilute  the  gas  until 
it  loses  its  ability  to  explode. 

Soldered  joints  are  especially  liable  to  this  trouble,  and  with  them  it 
will  sometimes  be  found  necessary  to  take  the  pipe  down  to  locate  the 
trouble,  as  with  the  engine  standing  still  and  the  pipe  bolted  in  place  the 
looseness  will  not  show.  Defective  gaskets  at  the  inlet  pipe  connections 
or  worn  inlet  valve  stems  may  also  lead  to  such  leaks. 

Back  firing  in  the  carburetor  is  often  attributed  to  the  use  of  too 
weak  a  mixture,  but  it  is  also  likely  to  be  caused  by  some  portion  of  the 
combustion  space  being  raised  to  such  a  temperature  that  the  incoming 
gas  becomes  ignited  before  the  inlet  valve  closes.  An  extremely  late 
position  of  the  spark  is  likely  to  aggravate  this  effect.  If  the  inlet  valve 
sticks  open,  through  weakness  of  its  spring  or  any  similar  cause,  back 
firing  is  likely  to  result. 


Fuel   Consumption   as   a   Criterion   of   a   Car's   Condition. 

(ALBERT   L.    CLOUGH.) 

The  proportion  of  the  amount  of  fuel  used  to  the  mileage  traversed 
furnishes  a  valuable  indication  of  the  condition  of  a  car.  The  number 
of  miles  which  a  car  will  cover,  carrying  a  certain  load  over  a  certain 
road,  per  gallon  of  gasoline  burnt,  will  at  once  inform  its  owner,  who 
has  given  consideration  to  his  special  case  of  the  fuel  question,  whether 
or  not  it  is  performing  as  well  as  usual.  Sudden  changes  of  condition 
in  the  car,  evident  losses  of  power,  manifested  in  decreased  speed  and 
hill  climbing  power,  are  readily  noticed  as  they  occur  and  may  usually 
be  traced  to  their  sources  by  characteristic  symptoms.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  gradual  deterioration  in  the  condition  of  a  car  which  comes  about 
through  extensive  use  may  be  hardly  noticeable  from  day  to  day,  but  may 
amount  to  a  very  material  difference  in  the  quality  of  its  running  during 
a  period  of  several  months. 

JUDGMENT   UNTRUSTWORTHY. 

One  can  hardly  be  sure,  on  any  given  day,  that  one  is  opening  the 
throttle  just  the  same  amount  in  order  to  secure  a  certain  speed  or  hill 
climbing  power  on  certain  roads  as  was  required  to  give  the  same  results 
several  weeks  or  months  ago.  The  loss  of  power  may  have  been  so 
gradual  during  the  period  that  the  increase  of  gas  required  has  been 
imperceptible  from  day  to  day,  but,  in  point  of  fact,  the  added  amount 
of  fuel  gradually  called  for  may  be  very  considerable.  Furthermore,  an 
operator  can  hardly  be  expected  to  remember  for  several  weeks  or  months 
just  how  much  the  lower  gears  were  required  in  order  to  traverse  a  cer- 
tain road  with  a  certain  load,  and  he  is  thus  usually  unable  to  compare 
the  performance  of  his  car  on  that  trip  with  its  actions  when  covering 

113 


the  same  ground  at  a  later  date.  The  judgment  of  the  operator  is,  indeed, 
quite  unreliable  in  determining  the  question  of  condition  during  long 
periods  of  time.  Very  often  an  owner  beginning  to  drive  a  new  car  is 
quite  impressed  with  its  speed  and  power,  but  after  a  little  while  he 
becomes  used  to  it,  its  capabilities  seem  more  ordinary  to  him,  and  he 
often  thinks  it  is  not  doing  as  good  work  as  it  originally  did.  If  he  drives 
or  rides  much  on  other  cars  of  higher  power,  when  he  resumes  the  con- 
trol of  his  own  car  he  often  does  so  with  other  and  higher  standards  of 
performance  in  mind,  and  is  likely  to  regard  the  work  of  his  own  lower 
powered  vehicle  in  an  unflattering  light. 

If,  however,  an  automobilist  knows  exactly  what  was  his  mileage  dur- 
ing a  certain  trip,  at  a  certain  speed  at  the  beginning  of  his  season,  he 
has  a  measure  of  the  car's  performance  with  which  he  can  at  any  time 
compare  its  later  condition,  if  he  drives  the  vehicle  over  the  same  route, 
under  nearly  the  same  conditions  of  load,  road  surface,  speed  and  quality 
of  fuel.  If  the  later  test  shows  a  greater  consumption  of  gasoline  he 
may  be  sure  that  the  car  is  in  some  way  or  ways  less  well  conditioned 
than  it  was  at  the  time  of  the  first  run. 

GASOLINE  AND   MILEAGE  RECORDS. 

If  a  car  is  equipped  with  a  trip  odometer  it  may  be  set  at  zero  each 
morning  that  the  car  is  to  be  used,  and  if  a  record  of  the  daily  mileage 
obtained  from  it  is  kept  upon  a  calendar  pad,  and  with  it  is  made  a  record 
of  the  quantity  of  gasoline  required  to  just  refill  the  tank  at  the  end  of 
each  day's  run,  data  will  be  collected  for  determining  the  daily  mileage 
per  gallon  that  the  car  is  making. 

An  occasional  glance  at  the  figures  obtainable  from  these  records  will 
show  whether  the  fuel  economy  of  the  car  remains  satisfactory  or  is 
decreasing.  The  mileage  obtainable  from  a  gallon  of  gasoline  on  ordinary 
country  roads  varies  roughly  from  6  or  7  in  the  case  of  large  six  cylinder 
cars  to  20  or  upward  in  the  case  of  light  cars  with  engines  of  good  effi- 
ciency and  direct  and  economical  transmission.  Experience  has  shown  that 
about  15  miles  on  a  gallon  is  not  far  above  the  average  figure  for  the 
ordinary  four  cylinder,  five  passenger  car  under  normal  conditions. 

Loss   OF  FUEL  ECONOMY. 

If  a  user  begins  to  feel  that  his  car  is  not  doing  quite  as  good  work 
as  formerly,  and  finds  by  consulting  his  fuel  figures  that  while  previously 
the  vehicle  has  been  covering  15  miles  per  gallon  it  is  now  traveling  only 
12  miles  per  gallon,  he  may  be  reasonably  sure  that  his  suspicions  con- 
cerning the  car  are  well  founded  and  that  it  is,  in  fact,  "out  of  tune."  In 
an  automobile  which  is  out  of  condition  the  excess  of  gasoline  consumed 
is  accounted  for  by  the  necessarily  wider  throttle  opening  required  to  give 
the  desired  speed  and  by  the  increased  proportion  of  the  distance  which 
is  traveled  on  the  lower  gears,  which  ordinarily  waste  much  more  fuel 
than  does  the  direct  drive. 

When  increased  gasoline  consumption,  as  well  as  the  driver's  observa- 
tion, indicates  that  the  car  is  "out  of  fix,"  it  is  usually  found  that  there 
are  quite  a  number  of  things  simultaneously  a  little  in  need  of  attention, 
and  the  problem  of  setting  matters  right  is  sometimes  quite  elusive  and 
complicated.  A  single  defect,  which  is  complete,  or  very  bad  indeed, 

114 


usually  demands  immediate  remedy,  but  a  "complication  of  diseases"  result- 
ing in  "general  debility"  is  often  difficult  of  treatment. 
LEAKAGE   OF   FUEL. 

Before  drawing  any  conclusion  from  the  rate  of  gasoline  consump- 
tion, it  is  well  to  determine  that  no  leakage  of  fuel  is  taking  place.  Occa- 
sionally the  float  needle  valve  becomes  slightly  leaky  through  the  roughen- 
ing of  the  conical  valve  surfaces  due  to  constant  vibration  or  on  account 
of  small  foreign  particles  lodging  therein.  The  leakage  may  not  be  suffi- 
cient to  cause  any  loss  of  gasoline  or  flooding  of  the  vaporizing  chamber 
while  the  engine  is  running,  but  may  be  sufficient  in  amount  to  lead  to  a 
constant  slow  dripping  while  the  engine  is  stopped.  As  it  is  the  practice 
of  many  users  not  to  shut  off  the  gasoline  supply  from  the  tank  when  the 
car  is  left  standing,  there  may  be  an  escape  of  fuel  in  this  manner,  amount- 
ing in  time  to  a  very  considerable  amount.  The  gasoline  will  usually 
evaporate  from  the  floor  or  be  absorbed  by  the  road  without  forming 
any  noticeable  puddle,  and  unless  the  carburetor  be  very  closely  watched 
the  leak  may  continue  undetected  for  a  long  time.  The  unions  on  the 
gasoline  pipe  which  connect  its  respective  ends  to  the  tank  and  the  car- 
buretor float  chamber  may  have  become  loosened  and  leaky,  and  there  is 
always  the  possibility  of  a  slight  split  having  developed  in  the  gasoline 
pipe.  Considering  the  danger  that  is  inherent  in  gasoline  leaks,  it  is  sur- 
prising that  the  fuel  system  does  not  receive  more  careful  attention  than 
is  generally  bestowed  upon  it. 

Loss  OF   COMPRESSION. 

If  no  gasoline  leak  be  found  the  figures  showing  a  reduced  mileage 
per  gallon  are  to  be  trusted  as  evidence  that  the  car  will  bear  a  careful 
inspection.  In  the  regular  use  of  a  car  there  usually  occurs  a  very  gradual 
loss  of  compression,  the  progress  of  which  is  not  at  all  evident  to  the 
sense  of  feeling  when  the  motor  is  cranked,  because  the  change  is  so  slow. 
The  piston  rings  wear  so  that  their  ends  do  not  come  together,  they  lose 
their  resiliency  or  are  stuck  in  their  grooves  by  an  accumulation  of  car- 
bonized oil.  Then  there  is  a  tendency  for  valves  to  gradually  become 
leaky  through  long  use.  The  exhaust  valve  particularly  is  likely  to  become 
warped  by  the  intense  heat  of  the  escaping  charge  or  to  scale  or  pit,  and 
thus  in  time  to  seat  very  imperfectly.  All  these  actions  result  in  a  lack 
of  tightness  on  the  part  of  the  cylinder,  and,  while  the  volume  of  gas 
drawn  into  it  during  each  suction  stroke  is  as  large  as  ever,  there  is  an 
escape  of  fuel  during  both  the  compression  and  explosion  strokes,  a 
reduction  of  the  pressure  and  a  diminution  of  power  generated  during 
the  cycle.  In  other  words,  a  portion  of  the  fuel  taken  from  the  carburetor 
is  thrown  away  into  the  muffler  and  crank  case  and  the  rest  is  used 
uneconomically. 

DERANGEMENT  OF  VALVE   MECHANISM. 

Another  cause  of  progressive  decrease  in  fuel  efficiency  and  of  power 
is  the  gradual  decrease  in  the  exhaust  and  inlet  valve  lift,  due  to  the 
wearing  down  of  the  surface  of  the  exhaust  cam,  wear  of  the  pin  in  the 
roller  follower  and  lost  motion  in  the  valve  operating  rocker  arm,  if  one 
is  used.  The  wear  of  the  valve  stem  end  and  the  push  rod  end  and  of 
other  parts,  if  they  are  not  carefully  hardened,  contributes  to  this  back- 
lash. The  result  of  this  reduced  exhaust  valve  lift  is  to  throttle  the  out- 

"5 


going  gases  and  to  produce  a  back  pressure  which  is  subtracted  from  the 
pressure  of  explosion,  and  while  the  same  amount  of  fuel  is  burned  at  a 
given  throttle  opening,  the  production  of  power  is  naturally  reduced.  The 
same  reduction  of  life,  due  to  wear  of  the  operating  parts,  may  affect 
the  inlet  valve  as  well,  with  the  result  that  a  lessened  charge  is  admitted 
to  the  cylinders  and  less  power  produced  per  stroke,  but  this  defect  pro- 
duces the  same  effect  as  throttling  and  has  not  much  influence  upon  fuel 
economy. 

MUFFLER  BACK  PRESSURE. 

In  the  same  connection  as  the  reduction  of  exhaust  valve  lift  may  be 
mentioned  the  progressive  choking  of  the  muffler  which  sometimes  occurs 
if  its  passages  are  contracted  and  if  an  excess  of  oil  or  a  bad  fuel  mix- 
ture is  habitually  used.  The  carbon  deposits  in  the  muffler  passages  give 
rise  to  an  excessive  back  pressure  and  an  inevitable  loss  of  power  and 
of  fuel  efficiency,  and,  as  the  accumulation  is  quite  gradual,  this  source 
of  trouble  is  likely  to  be  overlooked. 

There  is  at  all  times  more  or  less  carbon  dust  floating  in  the  exhaust 
and  also  vapor  from  the  oil  of  the  cylinders.  These  two,  the  carbon  and 
the  oil  smoke,  combine  and  form  a  sticky,  greasy  deposit  on  the  plates  or 
tubes  of  the  muffler,  especially  around  the  perforations,  decreasing  their 
diameter  and  eventually  choking  them  up  to  such  an  extent  that  the  back 
pressure  developed  will  cut  the  speed  and  power  of  the  machine  down  50 
per  cent,  or  more.  In  such  cases  the  plates  in  the  muffler  may  become  so 
heavily  coated  that  on  holding  them  up  to  the  light  only  a  glimmer  can 
be  seen  here  and  there  through  the  holes.  If  the  plates,  after  being  scraped 
and  washed  with  gasoline,  are  coated  with  stove  blacking  or  plumbago  and 
boiled  oil,  the  oil  being  applied  first  and  the  plumbago  rubbed  into  it,  and 
excess  of  cylinder  lubrication  is  avoided,  the  muffler  will  go  much  longer 
between  cleanings,  as  the  smoother  the  plates  and  the  dryer  the  exhaust 
the  less  chance  there  is  of  the  carbon  sticking. 

No  single  defect  is  more  surprisingly  productive  of  poor  fuel  economy 
than  a  weak  spark  due  to  insufficient  battery  power  or  to  vibrators  which 
have  lost  their  proper  adjustment  through  long  use. 

A  considerable  period  may  elapse  after  the  spark  ceases  to  be  per- 
fectly efficient  before  it  actually  begins  to  fail  to  produce  an  explosion, 
and  during  this  time  the  charges  are  very  imperfectly  ignited,  the  initial 
pressure  in  the  cylinder  is  abnormally  low,  and  consequently  the  power 
developed  is  very  unsatisfactory.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  charge, 
when  ignited  by  a  weak  spark,  seems  to  escape  unburned  or  only  partially 
oxidized.  The  deterioration  in  the  quality  of  the  spark,  being  quite  gradual, 
may  not  be  realized  by  the  operator  or  identified  as  a  cause  of  trouble 
unless  close  account  is  kept  of  the  fuel  consumption.  Then,  too,  there  may 
be  missed  explosions  which  escape  notice. 

CARBURETOR   OUT   OF   ADJUSTMENT. 

There  is  always  a  chance  that  the  carburetor  gasoline  adjustment  may 
have  changed  on  account  of  the  loosening  of  the  set  screws,  or  that  the 
air  admitting  poppet  valve  in  the  carburetor  air  inlet  may  be  prevented 
from  acting  because  of  having  been  fouled  with  mud.  A  bad  mixture  and 
consequent  low  fuel  economy  will  be  the  result.  A  great  change  in  tem- 
perature or  the  use  of  the  car  in  a  much  higher  or  lower  altitude  may 

116 


render  the  original  gasoline  adjustment  imperfect   and   prove  to  be  the 
cause  of  wasted  fuel. 

WASTE   IN   TRANSMISSION. 

The  above  mentioned  defects,  which  may  be  the  causes  of  observed 
wastefulness  of  fuel,  affect  the  production  of  power;  in.  other  words,  the 
engine.  But  sometimes  wastefulness  in  applying  the  power  may  account 
for  the  increased  consumption  of  gasoline.  A  driving  chain  is  likely 
gradually  to  stretch  and  become  very  much  out  of  pitch  with  the  sprockets, 
thus  wasting  in  friction  a  considerable  amount  of  power.  There  may  be 
lack  of  lubrication  somewhere  which  may  not  be  serious  enough  to  give 
immediate  notice,  by  heating  or  sticking  of  the  parts,  but  still  prove  a 
serious  "drag."  Brake  bands  or  shoes  may  fail  to  entirely  part  contact 
with  their  drums  when  released,  and  reverse  and  low  speed  bands  may  be 
dragging. 


LUBRICATION. 


Theory  of   Lubrication. 

(J.    W.   G.    BROOKER.) 

Lubrication  is  the  art  of  making  things  work  smoothly.  Lubricants 
minimize  the  friction  existing  between  two  surfaces  when  one  slides  or 
rolls  over  the  other;  but  they  set  up  friction  themselves,  our  engines 
having  to  overcome  two  classes  of  friction — the  friction  arising  from  the 
metal  surfaces  sliding  over  one  another,  and  the  internal  friction  of  the 
lubricant.  The  first  we  call  solid  friction,  the  second  fluid  friction,  and  it 
is  the  aim  of  all  engineers  to  reduce  the  first  to  nil  and  the  second  to  a 
minimum.  The  nearest  approach  to  this  ideal  is  obtained  by  the  use  of 
an  oil  bath  containing  a  fairly  fluid  lubricant  and  with,  of  course,  accu- 
rately made  bearings.  The  ideal  condition  is  one  where  the  sliding  sur- 
faces are  completely  separated  by  a  film  of  lubricant.  Like  other  ideals, 
it  is  never  attained,  so  that  for  all  practical  purposes  we  have  compound 
friction — a  friction  due  to  the  action  of  surfaces  partly  separated  by  a 
fluid — in  which  there  is  solid  friction  where  the  bare  surfaces  touch  one 
another,  and  fluid  friction  where  the  lubricant  intervenes. 

In  may  be  well  to  briefly  enumerate  a  few  laws  of  solid  and  fluid 
friction. 

First,  as  to  solid  friction.  Increasing  the  pressure  increases  the  fric- 
tion; increasing  the  comparative  roughness  of  the  surfaces  increases  the 
friction.  Distribution  of  the  load  over  a  larger  area  of  bearing  does  not 
decrease  the  total  friction,  but  it  lessens  risk  of  abrasion  and  seizure. 
Friction  is  greater  between  soft  than  hard  metals,  and  is  greatest  at  the 
beginning  of  motion.  In  practice,  it  is  better  to  let  a  hard  work  against 
a  soft  metal,  making  provision  for  the  easy  renewal  or  repair  of  the  latter 
as  it  wears.  Now  as  to  fluid  friction.  It  is  independent  of  the  pressure, 
it  is  directly  proportional  to  the  area,  varies  approximately  as  the  square 
of  the  velocity  and  is  influenced  by  the  viscosity. 

Between  the  solid  sliding  surfaces  the  fluid  may  be  regarded  as  con- 
sisting of  a  series  of  superposed  layers,  each  moving  at  a  speed  propor- 
tional to  its  distance  from  the  fixed  solid  surface.  The  topmost  plane  of 
fluid  is  carried  along  by  and  moves  at  the  same  speed  as  the  moving  solid 
surface,  the  lowest  plane  remains  stationary,  the  intermediate  move  little 
or  much,  according  to  their  distances  from  the  solid  surfaces.  Now,  it  is 
this  sliding  of  the  planes  of  lubricant  over  each  other  that  constitutes  fluid 
friction.  The  more  viscous  the  liquid  the  greater  will  be  the  resistance  to 
motion;  the  ease  or  lack  of  ease  with  which  the  layers  slide  over  one 
another  is  a  direct  measure  of  the  viscosity  of  the  lubricant. 

Viscosity  is  the  property  by  virtue  of  which  the  lubricant  forms  a  com- 
paratively thick  film  between  rubbing  surfaces— I  say  thick,  but  in  reality 
these  films  are  measured  in  thousandths  of  inches.  The  more  viscous  the 

1x6 


lubricant  the  greater  is  the  pressure  which  can  be  sustained,  but  at  the 
same  time  unnecessarily  high  viscosity  creates  unnecessary  fluid  friction 
and  the  viscosity  of  the  lubricant  should  therefore  be  in  proportion  to  the 
pressure  which  it  will  have  to  sustain. 

ROLLING  VERSUS   SLIDING   FRICTION. 

It  is  of  interest  to  compare  these  actions  with  those  for  a  ball  bearing, 
in  which  it  is  customary  to  consider  the  whole  of  the  load  to  be  carried 
by  one  ball.  With  an  average  five-sixteenth  inch  to. three-eighth  inch  ball 
the  working  pressure  may  vary  from  500  to  1,500  pounds  between  the 
points  of  contact.  Converted,  this  means  many  hundred  thousand  pounds 
to  the  square  inch,  as  compared  with  a  few  hundred  pounds  per  square 
inch  in  the  case  of  plain  bearings. 

In  rolling  friction  the  balls  or  rollers  act  in  a  manner  closely  analogous 
to  the  lubricating  medium  of  a  plain  bearing  by  keeping  the  working  faces 
apart.  If  it  were  possible  to  make  a  ball  or  roller  bearing  with  absolutely 
no  sliding  friction,  i.  e.,  entirely  rolling  friction,  the  use  of  a  lubricant 
would  be  unnecessary.  However,  there  is  always  a  little  sliding  between 
the  balls  or  rollers  themselves  or  between  them  and  the  cage  employed  to 
keep  them  in  position,  and  it  is  to  minimize  this  that  a  lubricant  is  neces- 
sary. Ball  or  roller  bearings  undoubtedly  minimize  the  sliding  friction 
of  a  plain  bearing. 

One  of  the  functions  of  a  lubricant  is  to  overcome  or  neutralize  acci- 
dental variations  of  the  smoothness  of  surfaces.  Although  almost  infini- 
tesimal in  magnitude,  these  cause  variations  in  the  friction,  which  are 
always  tending  to  produce  overheating,  and  it  is  solely  a  matter  of  chance 
when  these  tendencies  preponderate  over  the  lubricating  effect  of  the  oil. 
A  light  oil  lubricates  as  well  as  a  viscous  one  when  all  is  smooth,  but 
when  a  minute  irregularity  occurs,  such  as  grit  or  rough  places  on  the 
surfaces,  heat  is  generated  locally,  the  oil  becomes  too  thin,  and  there  is 
a  risk  of  seizure  taking  place.  By  the  use  of  a  plentiful  supply  of  viscous 
lubricant  this  risk  can  be  considerably  reduced.  A  new  engine  under- 
lubricated  will  seize  much  more  readily  than  one  well  run  in. 

There  are  three  other  conditions  to  meet  which  a  viscous  lubricant  is 
necessary,  viz.,  great  pressure,  slow  speed  and  high  temperature.  The 
reasons  are  so  obvious  from  what  has  been  already  said  that  it  will  be 
wasting  time  to  dwell  on  them. 

PHENOMENA   OF   SEIZING. 

Seizing  can  always  be  traced  to  a  failure  of  the  lubricant  to  keep  two 
metal  surfaces  adequately  separated  by  a  film  of  oil.  Either  the  oil  may- 
be too  thin  or  the  pressure  between  the  surfaces  too  great,  or  there  may 
be  no  lubricant  there  at  all.  When  the  two  surfaces  come  into  close 
contact  under  considerable  pressure  much  work  has  to  be  done  to  get  one 
to  slide  over  the  other;  the  work  expended  in  overcoming  the  friction  is 
translated  into  heat,  and  the  heat  thus  produced  raises  the  temperature 
of  the  bearing,  and  the  molecules  of  metal  at  the  two  surfaces,  spurred  into 
greater  activity,  diffuse  from  the  shaft  into  the  brasses  or  from  the  piston 
into  the  cylinder  wall  and  vice  versa.  This  tendency  to  diffuse  or  weld 
is  so  great  that  when  two  metals  with  carefully  cleaned  and  polished  sur- 
faces are  very  strongly  pressed  together  and  left  for  several  weeks  at  the 
atmospheric  temperature  molecules  from  one  are  found  diffused  through- 

119 


out  the  other.  This  migration  is  immensely  facilitated  by  a  rise  in  tem- 
perature equivalent  to  an  increase  in  the  velocity  of  the  molecules.  Under 
suitable  conditions  the  interlocking  may  be  so  great  that  it  is  impossible 
to  separate  the  surfaces  intact  again. 

When  the  seizing  is  incomplete,  and  the  metals  continue  to  slide  over 
one  another,  the  surfaces,  especially  that  of  the  softer  of  the  two,  are 
scored,  and  even  if  checked  at  this  stage  by  stopping  the  engine  or  by  a 
copious  supply  of  oil,  the  repair  of  the  damage  is  an  expensive  matter. 
Scoring  and  seizing  are  facilitated  by  high  temperature,  high  pressure  and 
close  fitting  (remember  that  a  close  fit  at  a  low  temperature  becomes  a 
much  closer  fit  at  a  high  temperature).  Hence  we  arrive  at  the  main 
features  determining  a  suitable  lubricant;  it  must  withstand  the  maximum 
pressure  and  the  maximum  temperature  which  it  will  have  to  meet  and 
preserve,  as  far  as  possible,  an  unbroken  film  between  the  sliding  surfaces. 
TESTING  LUBRICANTS. 

The  following  are  the  chief  properties  which  a  lubricant  should  possess 
to  be  efficient:  Enough  body  or  viscosity  to  keep  it  between  the  rubbing 
surfaces  at  their  maximum  temperature  and  pressure.  The  greatest  fluidity 
consistent  with  the  required  viscosity.  Good  capacity  for  transmitting 
heat.  (It  is  one  of  the  uses  of  a  lubricant  to  transmit  or  carry  off  the 
heat  generated  by  friction;  the  larger  the  supply  of  lubricant  the  better 
is  this  effected,  which  is  another  argument  in  favor  of  an  oil  bath.)  No 
tendency  to  change  in  the  air.  Freedom  from  mineral  or  fatty  acids  likely 
to  corrode  the  surface  of  the  metal.  High  temperature  of  vaporization 
and  of  decomposition  and  low  freezing  or  "setting"  point.  Freedom  from 
grit,  water  and  other  foreign  matter. 

EFFECT  OF  HEAT  ON  LUBRICANTS. 

The  first  effect  of  heat  on  a  lubricant  is  to  considerably  reduce  its 
viscosity.  The  temperature  of  the  cylinder  wall  in  an  air  cooled  engine 
averages  from  250°  to  300°  Fahr.,  and  in  a  water  cooled  engine  from  180° 
to  250°  Fahr.  At  the  higher  of  these  temperatures  the  lubricant  is  about 
as  thin  as  water  or  kerosene,  and  splashes  just  as  readily.  The  following 
table  shows  roughly  the  change  of  viscosity  with  rise  of  temperature: 

Temperature,  Fahr 75°  110° 

Time  of  efflux  in  seconds ". .  740  no 

If  there  be  an  adequate  supply,  even  in  this  state  it  is  capable  of  pre- 
serving a  good  film,  between  piston  and  cylinder,  and  it  is  not  till  tempera- 
tures of  400°  up  to  500°  Fahr.  are  reached  that  danger  arises.  At  this 
stage  a  good  deal  of  the  oil  is  turned  to  vapor  and  is  no  longer  useful 
as  a  lubricant.  Unless  copious  supplies  are  pumped  in  to  make  up  the  loss, 
the  piston  will  seize,  especially  if  it  is  a  close  fit  in  the  cylinder,  owing  to 
the  absence  of  the  protective  film  which  keeps  the  metal  surfaces  from 
touching.  I  have  just  said  that  at  a  high  temperature  the  oil  is  evaporated, 
and,  therefore,  passes  out  of  the  exhaust  with  the  burnt  charge.  That  is 
only  partly  true;  the  truth  of  it  varies  with  the  quality  of  the  oil  used.  If 
you  have  a  well  refined  pure  oil  99  parts  in  100,  say,  are  evaporated  and 
do  no  damage;  the  one  part  is  carbonized — that  is  to  say,  decomposed  by 
the  heat.  It  is  solid  matter  in  a  very  fine  state  of  division ;  a  portion  of 
it  will  go  out  of  the  exhaust  with  the  gases,  the  rest  will  be  deposited  on 
the  walls  of  the  combustion  chamber  and  on  top  of  the  piston.  In  the 


case  of  oil  containing  notable  quantities  of  impurities,  the  proportion  car- 
bonized is  very  much  greater,  and  the  deposit  in  the  cylinder  head  grows 
more  rapidly. 

It  has  sometimes  been  stated  that  the  lubricant  has  to  withstand  the 
heat  of  the  explosion.  Now,  that  is  erroneous.  There  is  no  lubricant  in 
existence  capable  of  successfully  standing  a  temperature  of  1,500°  Cent,  to 
2,000°  Cent,  or  3,000°  Fahr.  to  3,500°  Fahr.,  which  is  the  average  tempera- 
ture of  the  explosion  at  its  hottest  point.  The  lubricant  is  always  at  the 
same  temperature  as  the  cylinder  wall,  and  it  is  this  factor  which  governs 
the  choice  of  an  oil.  The  size  of  a  cylinder  is  of  some  account,  because 
a  big  cylinder  means  a  big  piston  and  a  correspondingly  heavy  pressure 
between  them.  If  an  abnormal  piston  speed,  either  very  fast  or  very 
slow,  is  employed,  that  must  be  taken  into  account ;  but,  as  a  rule,  piston 
speed  need  not  be  considered,  so  we  are  narrowed  down  to  cylinder  tem- 
perature as  the  chief  question  to  be  studied.  With  an  efficiently  water 
cooled  engine,  an  oil  of  moderate  viscosity  and  volatility  can  be  used;  in 
fact,  a  good  quality  gas  engine  oil  will  frequently  serve.  But  we  must 
discriminate  between  a  single  cylinder  and  four  or  six  cylinders ;  the  latter 
engine,  with  its  smaller  and  cooler  cylinders,  less  pressure  on  crank  pins 
and  shaft,  etc.,  and  higher  average  speed  of  running,  is  best  served  by  a 
thinner  lubricant  than  the  slower  speed  single  cylinder  engine. 

The  same  applies  with  even  more  force  to  single  and  multi  cylinder 
motorcycles.  With  one  cylinder,  particularly  if  it  is  of  3^/2  horse  power  to 
4  horse  power,  a  very  viscous  and  resistant  lubricant  is  required;  for  the 
four  cylinder  better  results  would  most  probably  be  obtained  with  an  oil 
recommended  for  water  cooled  engines ;  for  a  twin  cylinder  an  oil  inter- 
mediate between  the  two  should  be  used. 


Automobile   Lubricants. 

(ALBERT   L.   CLOUGH.) 

The  choice  of  lubricants  of  suitable  quality  for  use  upon  the  various 
wearing  surfaces  of  an  automobile  is  a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance 
and  has  more  bearing  upon  the  length  of  life  of  the  mechanism  than  any 
other  consideration.  Any  employment  of  poor  or  unsuitable  oil  or  any 
failure  of  the  lubricant  to  actually  reach  the  wearing  surfaces  results  in 
a  rapid  destruction  of  the  parts  involved,  while  the  constant  use  of  liberal 
quantities  of  lubricant  of  appropriate  qualities  delivered  exactly  where 
the  friction  is  produced  results  in  the  attainment  of  a  remarkable  degree 
of  longevity  by  the  moving  parts  which  are  so  treated. 

Important  as  is  the  subject  of  lubrication  in  all  its  details,  and  definite 
as  are  the  respective  results  which  spring  from  good  and  bad  practice 
in  this  regard,  it  is  a  curious  fact  that  there  is  hardly  any  domain  of 
mechanical  knowledge  the  subject  matter  of  which  is  more  obscure,  inexact 
and  inapplicable  to  individual  cases  than  that  of  lubricants  and  lubrication. 
TESTS  DIFFICULT. 

Lubrication  is  not  a  particularly  fascinating  subject  and  very  few  people 
willingly  give  their  attention  to  it.  Furthermore,  it  is  a  very  long,  tedious 
and  doubtful  undertaking  to  determine  the  lubricating  properties  of  an 


oil  under  any  given  circumstances,  and  the  only  manner  in  which  it  can 
be  done  successfully  is  by  experimenting  with  the  particular  fluid  in 
question  under  conditions  of  actual  use  or  in  an  oil  testing  machine  in 
which  actual  conditions  are  as  closely  reproduced  as  possible  for  a  pro- 
tracted period  of  time. 

Naturally,  there  is  comparatively  little  oil  testing  undertaken,  and  that 
which  is  performed  is  usually  carried  out  by  oil  manufacturers  or  by  large 
industrial  or  transportation  companies  who  are  enormous  users  of  lubri- 
cants. The  information  gathered  by  the  former  is  in  a  measure  turned 
to  the  advantage  of  the  consumer,  but  that  collected  by  the  latter  is  gen- 
erally kept  secret. 

There  are  such  a  large  number  of  combinations  of  conditions  under 
which  the  use  of  oil  is  required,  involving  differences  in  pressure,  speed, 
temperature  and  other  factors,  that  the  lubrication  of  each  new  mech- 
anism is  in  some  respects  a  separate  problem. 

Furthermore,  while  the  chemical  and  physical  properties  of  an  oil  may 
be  determined  with  considerable  accuracy  by  means  of  laboratory  tests, 
the  art  of  lubrication  doesn't  seem  to  be  sufficiently  exact  to  enable  it  to 
be  stated  with  confidence  that  an  oil  which  combines  certain  chemical  and 
physical  characteristics  will  be  the  best  lubricant  under  certain  specified 
conditions.  Experience  in  the  use  of  a  certain  oil  is  the  only  source  of 
really  valuable  information  regarding  it,  and  data  of  this  kind  the  con- 
sumer is  forced  to  accept  upon  hearsay,  upon  the  say-so  of  the  manu- 
facturer or  some  user,  rather  than  at  first  hand. 

Slight  as  is  the  value  of  the  individual  judgment  of  the  ordinary  small 
user  of  oils,  there  are  certain  facts  the  knowledge  of  which  may  be  of 
help  to  him  in  his  selection  of  lubricants.    The  theory  of  action  of  lubri- 
cants has  already  been  discussed  in  these  columns. 
SELECTION   OF   OILS. 

For  use  upon  any  particular  bearing  an  oil  of  such  thickness  should, 
be  used  as  will  just  effectually  resist  the  "squeezing  out"  tendency  due 
to  the  maximum  pressure  which  acts  between  the  surfaces.  This  will 
render  the  loss  in  friction  due  to  moving  the  oil  upon  itself  less  than 
would  be  the  case  if  a  more  viscous  lubricant  were  employed.  When 
choosing  an  oil  of  appropriate  viscosity  or  body,  it  is  to  be  remembered 
that  temperature  exerts  a  most  important  effect  on  this  property.  An 
oil  which  at  ordinary  temperatures  would  prove  amply  viscous  to  resist 
squeezing  out  might,  if  heated  materially,  become  so  thin  as  to  be  quite 
unfit  for  its  purpose  and  might,  on  the  other  hand,  become  so  nearly  solid 
upon  a  considerable  reduction  of  the  temperature  as  to  lose  its  power  of 
spreading  and  thus  covering  and  protecting  all  parts  of  the  bearings. 
One  important  requirement  of  a  good  oil  is  this,  that  its  degree  of  viscosity 
should  change  as  little  as  possible  with  temperature  variations. 
MUST  BE  NON-CORROSIVE. 

In  order  that  a  lubricant  shall  not  exercise  a  corrosive  effect  upon 
the  bearing  surfaces  upon  which  it  is  used,  it  must  not  only  be  devoid 
of  free  acid  or  alkali,  but  must  be  innocent  of  materials  which,  through 
the  action  of  heat,  oxygen  or  moisture,  may  develop  corrosive  materials. 
Free  acid  may  occasionally  be  present  in  carelessly  prepared  oils,  having 
been  introduced  during  the  process  of  manufacture,  but  its  presence  hardly 


need  be  apprehended  in  mineral  oils  of  reputable  manufacture.  Animal 
and  vegetable  oils,  under  the  influence  of  conditions  met  with  in  use,  are 
ultimately  decomposed  into  glycerine  and  fatty  acids,  which  latter  are 
exceedingly  destructive  to  brass  and  bronze  and  somewhat  less  deleterious 
to  iron  and  steel.  Pure  mineral  oils  are  not  thus  decomposed  in  use  and 
are  hence  greatly  to  be  preferred.  One  statement  may  confidently  be 
made :  No  animal  or  vegetable  oil  or  grease,  either  pure  or  in  combination 
with  mineral  lubricants,  should  be  habitually  used  upon  any  part  of  an 
ordinary  automobile. 

In  the  case  of  a  gasoline  automobile  there  are,  roughly,  five  separate 
lubrication  problems  involved : 

(r)     Cylinder  lubrication. 

(2)  Shaft  bearings,  including  those  of  the  engine  and  change  speed 
gear. 

(3)  Gear  faces  and  chains. 

(4)  Wheel  and  axle  bearings. 

(5)  Miscellaneous  bearing  surfaces. 

CYLINDER   LUBRICATION. 

The  choice  of  an  oil  for  use  in  the  cylinders  is  the  most  important 
of  all  automobile  lubrication  questions.  Probably  the  safest  course  for 
the  individual  owner  to  pursue  is  to  use  the  oil  recommended  by  the  manu- 
facturer of  the  particular  car  in  question,  until  some  oil  known  to  be 
superior  is  found.  There  is,  however,  hardly  any  danger  in  using  a  suit- 
able grade  of  any  oil  which  has  attained  an  extensive  reputation,  is  gen- 
erally carried  in  stock  by  dealers  and  which  is  manufactured  by  a  reliable 
firm.  Such  an  oil  would  hardly  have  reached  a  position  of  popularity  if 
it  were  objectionable. 

ROUGH   TESTS. 

It  is  usually  futile  to  experiment  with  small  samples  of  new  cylinder 
oils,  as  the  results  are  generally  entirely  inconclusive.  Not  enough  oil  is 
usually  supplied  to  suffice  for  a  test  of  adequate  duration,  and  the  ordi- 
nary user  is  not  in  possession  of  the  apparatus  necessary  to  conduct  a 
really  critical  test.  The  rough  observations  which  an  ordinary  user  can 
make  upon  a  new  oil  might  include  the  apparent  power  delivered  by  the 
engine,  the  character  of  the  exhaust,  effect  upon  spark  plugs,  cooling  water 
evaporated,  extent  of  carbon  deposits  produced,  and  some  similar  crude 
data  which  could  be  of  no  great  value. 

Furthermore,  he  who  is  not  supplied  with  scientific  testing  apparatus 
can  never  be  sure  that  a  supply  of  oil  ordered  by  sample  is  honestly  filled, 
especially  if  it  comes  from  an  obscure  manufacturer.  It  is  good  policy, 
therefore,  to  "stick"  to  the  oil  that  has  given  fair  satisfaction,  especially 
if  of  a  well  known  brand,  as  one  is  likely  to  be  able  to  secure  it  of  uniform 
quality  at  a  great  many  widely  separated  points.  When  one  is  using  a 
cylinder  oil  of  fairly  satisfactory  character,  it  is  well  to  bottle  a  sample 
and  place  it  away  for  reference.  It  may  be  compared  with  a  similar  sam- 
ple of  each  new  lot  of  the  same  lubricant  when  received,  in  order  to 
demonstrate  the  correct  filling  of  the  order.  Such  simple  tests  as  taste, 
smell,  color  under  different  lights,  and  viscosity  as  judged  by  the  behavior 
of  the  fluid  when  the  bottle  is  inverted,-  are  not  without  their  value  in 
determining  whether  one  is  receiving  that  which  one  has  paid  for. 

'123 


REQUISITE  QUALITIES. 

Among  the  qualifications  of  a  good  cylinder  oil  are  the  following: 
First  and  foremost,  it  should  be  purely  mineral  in  its  origin  and  free 
from  any  admixture  of  animal  or  vegetable  substances.  It  should  pos- 
sess sufficient  body  to  serve  its  purpose  when  at  a  temperature  consid- 
erably in  excess  of  212°  Fahr.— say  at  250°  to  300°  Fahr.  It  should  not 
have  lost  too  much  of  its  viscosity  at  this  temperature,  nor  should  it  waste 
away  perceptibly  through  evaporation  if  maintained  at  this  heat  for  a 
number  of  hours. 

As  to  the  flash  temperature  or  "flash  point" — the  temperature  at  which 
inflammable  vapors  begin  to  be  given  off — authorities  differ  regarding  its 
importance  as  a  specification  in  fixing  the  qualities  of  a  cylinder  oil.  It 
is  admitted  that  it  is  impossible  to  produce  an  oil  which  will  not  be  burned 
if  it  is  actually  brought  to  a  temperature  anywhere  near  that  of  the  explo- 
sion. It  is  impossible  also  to  produce  an  oil  which  will  not  be  flashed 
if  it  reaches  the  temperature  of  the  centre  of  the  piston  head  or  that  of 
any  other  portion  of  the  mechanism  which  is  unprovided  with  cooling 
means.  If  an  oil  is  used  which  will  withstand  without  decomposition  the 
temperature  of  the  water  jacketed  portions  of  the  cylinder  and  remain 
unaltered  upon  the  surface  forming  the  piston  travel,  it  is  about  all  that 
can  reasonably  be  expected.  The  temperature  of  the  outside  of  the 
cylinder  walls  in  normal  operation  never  exceeds  212°  Fahr.,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  in  cases  where  the  cylinder  walls  are  thin  and  the  water  circula- 
tion good  the  temperature  of  the  inside  wall  is  less  elevated  than  one 
might  infer.  At  any  rate,  it  has  been  found  that  an  oil  possessing  a  flash 
point  in  the  neighborhood  of  450°  Fahr. — certainly  not  in  excess  of  500° 
Fahr. — appears  to  serve  very  well.  There  is  apparently  no  object  in  going 
any  higher,  and  some  valuable  qualities  are  likely  to  be  sacrificed  in  making 
the  attempt. 

The  oil  which  is  fed  to  the  cylinder  is  finally  evaporated,  if  not  decom- 
posed, but  not  until  it  has  served  its  object.  Some  of  it  may  be  ejected 
with  the  exhaust  still  in  the  condition  of  oil,  but  a  part  of  it  is  apparently 
decomposed  or  "split"  into  a  mixture  of  other  hydrocarbons.  It  is  very 
desirable  that  the  oil  may  be  ejected  before  its  decomposition  has  so  far 
advanced  as  to  result  in  the  freeing  of  carbon  in  the  form  of  a  lampblack, 
and  it  is  possible  chemically  to  favor  the  attainment  of  this  condition.  A 
cylinder  oil  should  possess  a  satisfactory  "cold  test" — that  is,  it  must 
withstand  a  large  reduction  of  temperature  without  becoming  too  viscous 
to  feed  properly  or  too  thick  to  be  longer  amenable  to  the  spreading  ten- 
dency due  to  capillary  action. 

The  elimination  from  the  oil  of  hydrocarbon  compounds  of  a  waxy 
or  paraffinelike  character  much  lowers  the  point  at  which  the  oil  "freezes," 
but  it  is  a  decidedly  difficult  matter  to  combine  in  a  single  oil  the  some- 
what antagonistic  qualities  of  a  good  degree  of  viscosity  at  very  high 
temperature  and  a  satisfactory  degree  of  fluidity  when  very  cold.  This 
difficulty  is  very  well  met  by  the  employment  of  two  grades  of  oil,  a 
thicker  one  for  summer  and  a  thinner  one  for  winter  use. 
"FLASH"  AND  "COLD"  TESTS. 

If  one  happens  to  possess  a  high  range  thermometer,  it  is  a  very  easy 
matter  to  gradually  heat  a  sample  of  cylinder  oil  in  a  small  dish  over 

124 


a  gas  burner.  At  no  time  in  the  process  should  there  be  noted  any  odor 
indicative  of  tallow  or  other  organic  matter  being  a  constituent  of  the 
oil,  and  the  lubricant  should  not  become  too  thin  or  watery  at  any  tem- 
perature below  300°  Fahr.  The  flash  point  may  be  roughly  determined 
by  reading  the  thermometer  just  as  an  inflammable  vapor  begins  to  be 
given  off  as  shown  by  presenting  a  flame  near  the  surface  of  the  liquid. 

By  the  use  of  ice  water  or  of  a   freezing  mixture  composed  of  ice 
and  salt,  a  sample  of  oil  may  be  cooled  until  it  just  ceases  to  be  fluid, 
when  a  reading  of  the  temperature  will  give  a  rough  idea  of  its  cold  test. 
PROPER   COLOR. 

Cylinder  oil  for  gas  engine  use  should  be  perfectly  clear,  and  its  color 
by  transmitted  light  should  be  an  amber,  while  by  reflected  light  it  may 
appear  fluorescently  green  or  blue.  In  direct  sunlight  or  under  the  arc 
lamp  this  fluorescence  is  particularly  marked.  Oil  which  does  not  show 
it  is  either  not  of  mineral  origin  or  has  be'en  tampered  with  by  a  chemical 
process. 

CARBONIZATION. 

This  subject  is  an  important  one  in  the  operation  of  modern  vehicle 
engines.  If  too  much  oil  or  oil  of  an  inferior  quality  be  used  incrusta- 
tions in  time  form  upon  the  surfaces  of  the  combustion  space,  the  piston 
heads  and  the  valves  and  their  seats,  which  are  composed  of  carbonaceous 
materials  derived  from  the  oil,  soot  from  the  fuel  which  may  be  imper- 
fectly consumed,  and  fine  sand  and  other  materials  drawn  in  with  the 
air  through  the  carburetor.  These  incrustations,  when  accumulated  in 
sufficient  quantities,  and  rendered  incandescent  by  the  burning  charge,  lead 
to  premature  ignition,  pounding  of  the  engine,  loss  of  power  and  wear  of 
the  bearings.  Compression  is  reduced  by  the  failure  of  the  valves  to  seat 
properly,  fuel  is  thereby  lost  and  the  engine  further  loses  power.  Cooling 
is  also  somewhat  interfered  with.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that 
an  oil  be  used  which  is  known  to  possess  a  minimum  tendency  to  deposit 
these  carbon  incrustations  and  that  no  excess  of  the  same  be  employed. 
By  so  doing  the  necessity  of  decarbonizing  the  parts  may  be  greatly 
deferred. 

BEARING  OILS. 

As  nearly  all  modern  vehicle  motors  are  lubricated  throughout — includ- 
ing cylinders,  piston  pins,  connecting  rod  tips  and  main  and  cam  shaft 
bearings — from  the  same  supply  of  oil,  little  need  be  said  upon  this 
subject.  If  a  grade  of  oil  suitable  for  the  cylinders  be  used  in  the  engine, 
it  will  be  found  also  to  be  suitable  for  the  bearings. 
GEAR  Box  LUBRICANTS. 

Since,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  shaft  bearings  of  the  change 
speed  gears  and  the  gear  faces  are  lubricated  from  the  same  bath  of 
lubricant  contained  in  the  gear  case,  the  shaft  bearings  must  almost  of 
necessity  be  oiled  with  a  lubricant  adapted  to  keep  the  gear  faces  in  quiet 
operation  with  a  minimum  of  wear. 

The  same  thing  may  be  said  of  the  bearings  and  gear  faces  in  the 
differential  case. 

GREASES. 

The  use  of  greases  for  the  lubrication  of  the  less  important  auto- 
mobile shaft  bearings  is  now  very  general.  Their  use  is  very  attractive 

125 


on  account  of  the  cleanliness  with  which  they  may  be  applied,  their  free- 
dom from  any  tendency  to  drip  from  the  bearings  and  the  convenience 
with  which  they  may  be  carried  about.  There  are  on  the  market  lubri- 
cants of  the  consistency  of  grease  which  are  known  as  solidified  oils,  non- 
fluid  oils,  and  so  forth.  These  greases  are  claimed  to  be  entirely  mineral 
in  their  origin  and  are  excellent  lubricants.  It  is  almost  universal  prac- 
tice to  supply  these  lubricants  from  compression  grease  cups  which  are 
given  a  turn  or  two  by  hand  whenever  convenient,  and  the  grease  thus 
forced  into  the  bearings  under  considerable  pressure. 

A  bearing  requires  to  be  specially  prepared  to  fit  it  for  grease  lubrica- 
tion. Greaseways  of  liberal  depth  leading  from  the  admission  hole 
should  be  cut  in  the  bushings  to  convey  the  somewhat  immobile  lubri- 
cant to  all  parts  of  the  frictional  surfaces.  A  grease  of  a  considerably 
less  degree  of  solidity  should  be  used  during  cold  weather,  otherwise  bear- 
ings supplied  with  it  become  very  "stiff."  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that 
if  a  pure  mineral  grease  be  chosen  the  lubricating  value  of  the  materials 
of  which  is  equal  to  that  of  fluid  oil,  and  if  this  semi-solid  material  can  be 
made  to  permeate  all  parts  of  the  frictional  surfaces,  its  use  should  possess 
decided  advantages  over  the  employment  of  liquid  oils.  Greases  with 
which  are  incorporated  a  certain  proportion  of  graphite  are  considerably 
used. 

FOR  GEAR  FACES. 

For  the  lubrication  of  gear  faces  quite  a  viscous  oil  is  required — one 
that  will  not  be  pressed  from  between  the  engaging  teeth  of  the  gears  in 
ordinary  use.  Gears  being  usually  enclosed  in  an  oiltight  case,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  allow  one  or  more  of  the  larger  ones  to  dip  in  this  heavy  oil 
and  to  splash  it  over  the  faces  of  the  others.  If  "an  oil  of  exceedingly  high 
viscosity  is  used  and  the  gears  are  allowed  to  dip  almost  their  full  radius, 
a  very  considerable  amount  of  power  may  be  wasted  when  running  at 
high  speeds.  It  is  generally  sufficient  to  have,  say,  two  gears  dip  rather 
lightly  into  the  liquid.  As  there  is  no  high  temperature  to  be  resisted  by 
the  lubricant,  a  mineral  oil  of  a  relatively  cheap  grade  may  be  employed 
successfully. 

Oils  suitable  for  this  use  and  known  as  gear  case  oils  are  upon  the 
market.     As  a  rule,  the  heavier  grades  of  these  oils  are  preferable,  and 
steam  engine  cylinder  oil  is  recommended  by  some  manufacturers. 
GREASE  IN  GEAR  CASE. 

The  practice  of  placing  greases  or  other  solid  lubricants  in  the  gear 
case  instead  of  a  liquid  oil  is  rather  questionable.  The  solid  lubricant  is 
forced  or  worn  away  from  contact  with  the  rapidly  revolving  gears,  and 
it  is  only  when  the  car  is  still  and  the  temperature  high  that  the  grease 
will  again  settle  around  the  moving  parts  and  re-lubricate  them.  De- 
pending for  lubrication  upon  any  material  which  cannot  spread  or  move 
under  the  influence  of  gravity  or  capillarity  is  hardly  a  safe  proposition. 

However,   an   admixture   of   grease   with   cylinder   oil,    resulting   in   a 
proper  consistency,  makes  an  excellent  lubricant. 
CHAIN  LUBRICATION. 

For  the  chains  it  will  be  found  that  an  immersion  of  an  hour  or  two 
in  gear  case  oil  after  they  have  been  thoroughly  cleaned  with  kerosene 
will  perfectly  lubricate  the  pins.  The  chains  may  then  be  wiped  off 

126 


externally  and,  after  putting  them  in  place,  a  liberal  coating  of  graphite 
grease  may  be  given  the  blocks  or  rollers  and  the  sprocket  teeth.  Graphite 
grease  is  usually  a  lime  soap  with  a  certain  admixture  of  mineral  oil  into 
which  has  been  incorporated  finely  divided  graphite.  In  some  cases  a 
non-fluid  oil  which  has  been  filled  with  graphite  is  used. 
ANTI-FRICTION  BEARING  LUBRICATION. 

For  the  lubrication  of  the  ball  or  roller  bearings,  so  generally  used  for 
the  support  of  the  front  wheels  and  the  rear  axles  of  automobiles,  a  pack- 
ing of  non-fluid  oil,  filling  the  space  in  which  the  balls  or  rollers  travel,  is 
usually  adopted.  This  packing  has  the  advantage  of  not  escaping  rapidly 
from  the  bearing.  The  rolling  action  of  the  balls  or  rollers  keeps  it  well 
distributed,  and,  as  this  type  of  bearing  does  not  need  a  large  amount  of 
lubrication  in  any  event,  the  results  are  most  satisfactory.  If  the  balls 
or  rollers  are  contained  in  a  cage,  the  interstices  of  this  may  be  filled  with 
the  compound,  which  will  last  for  a  long  time.  A  bearing  of  this  kind 
furnishes  an  instance  where  a  semi-solid  lubricant  may  be  used  to  very 
great  advantage. 

MISCELLANEOUS  BEARING  SURFACES. 

Grease,  fed  from  compression  cups  provided  with  spring  retained 
caps,  is  generally  used  to  lubricate  all  the  minor  parts,  such  as  spring 
hangers,  brake  parts,  rear  axle  bearings,  parts  of  the  steering  gear  and 
the  shafts  of  the  operating  devices.  Where  grease  cups  are  not  provided 
spring  closed  oil  retainers  are  generally  employed.  Almost  any  good 
machine  oil  will  serve  at  these  points,  but  the  average  motorist  will  use 
cylinder  oil  in  order  to  avoid  keeping  on  hand  more  than  one  grade  of 
fluid  lubricant. 

GRAPHITE. 

Although  the  lubricating  qualities  of  this  material  are  undoubted,  it 
cannot  be  said  to  be  in  very  general  use  upon  automobiles. 

Graphite  greases  or  oils  containing  graphite  in  suspension  are  some- 
what used  in  gear  cases,  and  the  greases  in  grease  cups. 

The  mixture  of  a  small  proportion  of  graphite  with  cylinder  oil  has  been 
found  by  some  users  to  secure  excellent  engine  lubrication  and  to  permit 
of  economy  in  the  use  of  oil.  Some  trouble  has  been  experienced  by 
others  arising  from  the  short  circuiting  of  the  spark  plugs  by  the  graphite. 

In  the  deflocculated  or  minutely  subdivided  form,  known  by  the  trade 
name   of   "Oildag,"   graphite  seems   to   be   giving  good   satisfaction   to   a 
considerable  number  of  users  when  mixed   with  cylinder  oil  in  suitable 
proportions — a  reduction  in  the  amount  of  oil  required  being  claimed. 
CONCLUSIONS. 

In  closing,  let  stress  be  laid  upon  a  few  points,  among  which  are  the 
following : 

Do  not  employ  anything  but  purely  mineral  lubricants  if  it  can  possibly 
be  avoided. 

Take  special  pains  to  follow  the  advice  of  the  manufacturer  of  your 
particular  car  in  regard  to  the  cylinder  oil  best  adapted  to  be  used  upon 
it,  if  such  advice  seems  to  be  sincere  and  unbiased. 

Adopt,  if  possible,  a  brand  of  cylinder  oil  of  established  merit,  which 
can  be  obtained  anywhere  and  of  uniform  quality. 

If  practicable,  adopt  a  grade  which  is  not  unsuitable  for  general  lubri- 

127 


eating  purposes,  and  thereby  preclude  the  necessity  of  carrying  more 
than  one  grade. 

Do  not  discard  the  use  of  liquid  oil  in  favor  of  greases  until  it  has 
been  demonstrated  that  it  may  be  done  without  danger. 

Use  the  best  grade  of  grease  and  be  sure  that  there  are  means  provided 
to  insure  its  spreading  properly  throughout  the  bearings. 

It  pays  to  be  conservative  in  the  matter  of  lubricants  and  not  experi- 
ment too  much. 


Methods  of   Engine   Lubrication. 

(ALBERT   L.   CLOUGH.) 

Practically  all  modern  engines  are  furnished  with  their  oil  supply  by 
some  positive  mechanical  means,  the  operation  of  which  starts  and  stops 
with  the  engine,  and  in  most  instances  the  distribution  to  tht  various  parts 
of  the  oil  supplied  is  wholly  or  in  part  effected  by  the  splashing  action 
of  the  moving  parts,  which  results  in  a  mist  of  finely  divided  oil  that  pene- 
trates to  all  frictional  surfaces. 

By  far  the  most  commonly  used  system  is  the  self  contained  circulating 
system.  In  this  system  a  positively  driven  pump,  usually  of  the  gear  or  of 
the  eccentric  type,  is  mounted  within  the  crank  case  and  operated  by  gears 
from  the  half  time  shaft.  In  fact,  the  pump  is  usually  an  integral  part 
of  the  engine  structure.  This  pump  ordinarily  draws  its  supply  of  lubri- 
cant from  an  oil  reservoir  which  is  generally  cast  in  the  lower  half  of  the 
crank  case. 

Oil  is  generally  delivered  by  the  pump  to  pipes  leading  to  each  main 
bearing  of  the  crank  shaft  and  sometimes  of  the  cam  shaft,  and  in  some 
cases  the  piping  is  supplanted  by  channels  cast  into  the  walls  of  the 
engine  base.  A  large  oversupply  or  "flood"  of  lubricant  is  thus  furnished 
to  each  main  bearing  and  the  excess  escapes  therefrom  and  falls  back 
into  the  reservoir.  A  strainer  is  provided  in  the  pump  suction  which  pre- 
vents all  foreign  particles  from  being  circulated.  Various  methods  of 
oiling  other  parts  of  the  engine  may  be  made  use  of  in  this  system.  The 
crank  shaft  may  be  provided  with  channels  leading  from  each  bearing  to 
their  neighboring  crank  pins,  and  centrifugal  force  may  be  relied  upon  to 
carry  the  lubricant  to  the  connecting  rod  tips,  or  the  oil  in  the  engine 
base  may  be  carried  at  such  a  height  that  the  rod  tips  dip  into  it,  pro- 
ducing a  splash  which  lubricates  the  reciprocating  parts.  In  some  cars 
channels  are  provided  in  the  connecting  rods  and  piston  pins,  up  through 
which  oil  is  carried  from  the  crank  pins  by  virtue  of  its  inertia  on  the 
down  strokes  of  the  rods  and  the  pins  and  the  cylinder  walls  thus  lubri- 
cated. As  a  rule  the  splash  or  mist  of  oil  in  the  crank  case  is  at  least 
partially  relied  upon  for  cylinder  and  piston  pin  lubrication,  as  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  flood  of  oil  escaping  from  the  bearings  is  generally 
caught  and  thrown  about  the  inside  of  the  engine. 

In  this  system  a  gauge  is  frequently  attached  to  the  crank  case  to  indi- 
cate the  oil  level,  an  accessible  filler  tube  is  provided  therein,  and  a  reserve 
supply  tank  is  commonly  provided  from  which  the  supply  in  the  crank 
case  may  be  periodically  replenished.  Oftentimes  the  supply  from  the 


pump,  or  a  part  of  it,  is  carried  through  a  telltale  on  the  dash,  which  gives 
visual  indication  of  the  working  of  the  pump. 

This  method  of  circulating  oil  in  large  quantities  around  the  bearings 
seems  rapidly  to  he  growing  in  favor  and  has  the  merit  of  keeping  the 
bearings  cooled  and  the  shaft  oil  floated  in  a  nearly  ideal  manner. 

In  Fig.  72  is  diagrammatically  represented  such  a  system,  in  which  A  is 
a  gear  pump  driven  from  one  of  the  engine  shafts  by  gearing,  which 
delivers  oil  from  the  reservoir  C  through  pipe  B  to  the  filter  D.  From 
the  filter  the  main  portion  of  the  oil  flows  through  the  sight  feed  manifold 
E  and  through  pipes  F  to  the  three  main  bearings  of  the  motor.  The 
rest  of  the  supply  passes  through  pipe  G  to  the  timing  gear  case.  As  the 
excess  of  oil  escapes  from  the  main  bearing  it  falls  into  the  partitioned 
crank  case  bottom  H,  where  it  is  caught  by  the  connecting  rod  tips  and 
thrown  up  against  the  cylinder  walls,  also  oiling  the  pistons  and  the 
piston  pins.  The  accumulation  of  too  great  a  depth  of  oil  in  H  is  pre- 


FIG.  72.— SELF  CONTAINED  CIRCULATING  SYSTEM  OF  LUBRICATION  (ROYAL). 

vented  by  the  escape  of  the  excess  through  the  standpipes  KK,  which 
return  the  surplus  to  the  reservoir  C,  with  which  the  pump  suction  is 
connected.  M  is  an  oil  gauge  showing  the  height  of  the  oil  supply  in  the 
reservoir,  and  which  also  serves  as  a  draw-off  cock.  N  is  the  reserve  oil 
tank  from  which  the  supply  in  C  may  be  replenished  by  opening  the 
cock  O. 

FORCE  .FEED   MAGAZINE   LUBRICATORS. 

In  the  regular  force  feed  system  the  oil  supply  is  carried  in  a  reser- 
voir usually  located  under  the  hood,  where  the  oil  may  be  kept  warm. 
Within  the  reservoir  are  a  number  of  small  pumps  drawing  their  supply 
from  the  oil  about  them.  The  delivery  of  each  pump  is  connected  by  a 
copper  tube  with  some  point  requiring  lubrication,  such  as  a  cylinder  wall, 
a  main  bearing  or  the  timing  gear  case.  Each  pump  is  adjustable  as  to 
the  amount  of  its  delivery  per  stroke,  the  usual  rate  of  feed  being  from 

129 


one  to  three  drops,  and  often  the  oil  delivered  by  each  pump  is  passed 
through  a  telltale  or  sight  feed  glass,  from  which  it  flows  to  its  destina- 
tion by  gravity. 

All  the  pumps  are  commonly  driven  from  a  single  shaft  that  passes 
through  the  lubricator  reservoir  and  which  receives  its  motion  from  the 
engine  through  gearing.  A  very  slow  motion  is  imparted  to  the  pumps  by 
means  of  worm  gearing,  or  some  equivalent  arrangement,  interposed 
between  the  shaft  and  the  pump  itself,  so  that  one  stroke  of  the  pump 
is  equivalent  to  quite  a  number  of  turns  of  the  motor.  Instead  of  a  single 
pump  for  each  feed  there  may  be  two  provided,  the  first  being  an  adjusta- 
ble measuring  pump,  which  delivers  oil  to  a  second  pump  that  forces  it  to 
the  bearing  under  pressure  instead  of  feeding  it  by  gravity.  Or  there 
may  be  a  single  elevating  pump  capable  of  elevating  the  total  supply 
required  by  all  the  feeds  into  a  header  from  which  the  oil  flows  through 
adjustable  sight  feeds  to  individual  pumps,  which  force  it  through  separate 


THE   HORSELESS  AQE 


FIG.  73. — MECHANICAL  LUBRICATOR  WITH  ONE  MASTER  PUMP  FOR  ELEVATING  OIL 
AND  ONE  PUMP  FOR  EACH  FEED. 

A,  master  pump  for  forcing  oil  through  tube  B  to  distributor  C;  D,  sight  feeds;  E,  tubes  from  sight 
feeds  to  pumps  F  for  individual  feeds;  G,  driving  worm  shaft;  H,  worm  wheel;  I,  "fingers"  for  operat- 
ing individual  feed  pumps;  J,  spring  for  individual  feed  pumps;  K,  oil  delivery;  L,  oil  gauge. 


leads  to  the  bearings  and  the  cylinder  walls.  When  furnished  to  the 
cylinders  check  valves  are  provided  at  the  points  of  delivery  to  prevent 
the  explosion  pressure  from  forcing  the  oil  back  through  the  delivery 
tubes.  A  lubricator  of  the  last  described  type  is  depicted  in  Fig.  73. 

Occasionally  a  combination  of  the  force  feed  lubricator  system  and  the 
splash  system  of  distribution  is  adopted,  the  oil  level  in  the  several  crank 
case  sections  being  maintained  by  the  feed  from  a  lubricator  of  this 
type,  and  the  oil  being  splashed  about  by  the  action  of  the  connecting 
rod  ends. 

130 


EXHAUST   PRESSURE  FEED   LUBRICATORS. 

Sometimes  the  pressure  of  the  exhaust  gases  is  applied  to  a  body  of  oil 
contained  in  a  tight  reservoir  to  force  the  lubricant  through  pipes  to  the 
various  friction  producing  parts.  The  pressure  comes  on  with  the  start- 
ing of  the  engine  and  ceases  soon  after  it  is  stopped,  so  that  the  system 
is  fairly  automatic.  It  is,  however,  very  little  used  at  the  present  time. 

On  some  very  small  cars  the  gravity  flow  from  an  elevated  reservoir 
is  depended  upon  to  maintain  a  sufficient  lubricant  supply  to  the  crank 
case  where  distribution'  is  effected  by  the  splash  method. 


Hints  on   Lubrication   of   Motor  Cars. 

(ALBERT   L.   CLOUGH.) 

Failure  of  proper  lubrication  is  admittedly  the  most  common  cause  of 
injury  to  automobile  mechanisms,  and  it  is  especially  to  be  noted  that  these 
injuries  most  often  occur  in  the  early  use  of  a  machine  before  the  operator 
thoroughly  understands  the  demand  for  oil  existing  in  its  different  moving 
parts,  or  even  understands  what  the  parts  themselves  are,  where  located, 
and  how  supplied  with  lubricant.  It  has  too  often  been  the  case  that  in 
the  first  or  second  trip  with  a  new  machine  some  damage  has  resulted 
from  faulty  lubrication,  and  it  is  certainly  too  bad  to  take  chances  with  a 
new  machine  which  may  lead  to  permanent  injury  and  a  great  deal  of 
expense  through  failure  to  properly  provide  for  its  oiling.  After  a 
machine  has  been  operated  for  some  time  its  lubrication  becomes  habitual 
with  the  owner,  and  there  is  very  little  chance  of  damage  resulting  under 
these  circumstances. 

Sometimes  the  instructions  for  oiling  furnished  with  a  new  car  are 
rather  meagre,  and  it  seems  to  be  an  occasional  fault  in  the  literature 
received  from  the  manufacturers  that  they  make  the  oiling  operations 
appear  very  easy,  apparently  with  the  idea  of  impressing  the  owner  with  the 
slight  amount  of  care  required  by  the  machine.  However,  very  good  oiling 
instructions,  accompanied  by  clear  diagrams,  are  now  the  rule. 

It  would  be  a  wise  precaution  if,  upon  the  receipt  of  a  new  machine, 
the  owner  should  first  become  acquainted  with  every  detail  of  the  lubri- 
cating mechanism ;  not  only  with  every  part  which  can  possibly  require 
lubrication,  but  to  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  its  oil  supply,  to 
note  its  required  rate  of  supply  and  not  be  contented  with  the  mere  fact 
that  oil  is  supplied,  but  be  sure  that  the  oil  actually  reaches  the  point  of 
use  through  the  appropriate  pipes  or  channels.  Where  the  oil  pursues  a 
devious  path  in  reaching  the  bearing  one  should  be  satisfied  that  the  oil 
channels  are  all  clear  and  free. 

NECESSITY   OF    PROPER   LUBRICATION. 

There  are  a  great  many  different  points  of  attention  about  an  auto- 
mobile, failure  to  attend  to  which  will  result  only  in  inconvenience  and 
not  in  damage  and  loss;  but  the  matter  of  lubrication  is  one  the  neglect 
of  which  is  sure  to  be  serious.  Instances  are  by  no  means  uncommon  of 
cars  of  reputable  makes  being  nearly  ruined  by  lack  of  lubrication. 


STUDY   THE   LUBRICATING   SYSTEM. 

It  requires  some  self  restraint  to  forego  the  pleasure  of  operating  a 
newly  received  vehicle  before  looking  it  over  mechanically,  but  this  slight 
sacrifice  is  certainly  warranted  in  the  better  understanding  of  the  vehicle 
and  its  needs,  which  will  come  from  a  careful  inspection  with  the  aid  of 
a  first  class  mechanic,  or,  still  better,  an  operator  of  the  same  make  of 
vehicle.  If  one  would  surely  avoid  injury  to  the  vehicle  at  the  start,  with 
its  effect  upon  all  its  future  operation,  he  certainly  should  look  to  the 
oiling  mechanism  before  operating  the  car  at  all. 

There  is  one  thing  which  makes  toward  conscientious  lubrication,  and 
that  is  the  provision  of  convenient 

FACILITIES   FOR   HANDLING   AND    STORING 

oils  and  a  good  light  to  enable  the  operator  to  definitely  ascertain  whether 
his  oil  is  going  to  the  right  point.  Sometimes  the  difference  between  con- 
venient oiling  arrangements  and  inconvenient  ones  will  be  sufficient  to 
determine  whether  the  machine  receives  any  oil  at  all,  and  possibly  deter- 
mine the  fate  of  some  part  of  its  mechanism.  It  is  good  judgment  to 
have  lubricating  oils  kept  in  receptacles  from  which  they  can  be  pumped 
or  drawn  without  the  necessity  of  pouring  from  a  heavy  can.  They  are 
much  more  cleanly  when  kept  in  this  manner  and  the  cans  provided  with 
small  drip  pans.  A  stable  may  well  be  equipped  with  squirt  cans  of  the 
most  convenient  forms  to  reach  the  most  inaccessible  parts  of  the  mech- 
anism, and  small  funnels,  grease  and  oil  guns  should  be  provided,  as,  in 
case  oiling  is  made  convenient,  there  is  less  liability  of  its  being  neglected. 

AN    INCANDESCENT   LAMP 

on  a  flexible  cord  is  almost  necessary  to  examine  the  lubrication  of  con- 
cealed parts  of  the  mechanism.  A  machine  which  is  easily  accessible  in 
all  its  parts  is  likely  to  have  a  longer  life  than  one  otherwise  constructed, 
on  account  of  the  greater  probability  of  its  receiving  proper  lubrication. 
The  lubrication  of  a  machine  in  which  the  parts  are  crowded  or  which 
cannot  be  readily  exposed  to  view  is  almost  sure  to  be  neglected,  unless 
its  owner  is  more  conscientious  than  the  average. 

If  adjustable  oil  feeds  from  a  mechanical  or  pressure  lubricator  form 
a  part  of  the  equipment,  these  feeds  should  be  kept  accurately  adjusted  and 
the  oil  leads  be  kept  from  clogging  and  frequently  inspected  for  possible 
breakages  or  disconnections. 

Where  the  circulating  system  is  in  use  for  engine  lubrication  the 
strainer  should  be  frequently  cleaned,  the  recommended  amount  of  oil 
always  should  be  carried  and  the  supply  in  the  reservoir  should  never  be 
allowed  to  become  stale  or  fouled  with  foreign  particles,  but  should  be 
drawn  off  at  frequent  intervals. 

The  oil  level  in  change  speed  and  differential  cases  should  be  carefully 
maintained  at  the  correct  height,  and  the  lubricant  should  be  replaced 
before  it  becomes  unduly  dirty. 

ONLY   ONE   QUALITY   OF   OIL. 

It  is  a  great  convenience  to  be  able  to  use  one  quality  of  oil  for  all 
the  requirements  of  the  machine,  both  for  cylinder  lubrication  and  the 
oiling  of  other  moving  parts.  This  practice  is  perhaps  not  scientific,  but 
is  fairly  successful  where  a  good  oil  is  chosen,  primarily  of  such  quality 
as  to  be  successful  in  the  cylinder.  This  should  be  found  suitable,  when 

132 


mixed  with  grease,  for  the  gears  of  the  transmission,  for  the  clutch  and 
for  all  other  parts  requiring  a  fluid  lubricant.  If  one  could  have  only  one 
oil  to  carry  on  a  tour  it  should  certainly  be  a  good  cylinder  oil. 

GENERAL   LUBRICATION. 

No  mechanical  part  of  an  automobile  which  moves  upon  another  part, 
however  obscure  that  part  may  be,  should  be  left  without  lubrication. 
All  such  parts  should  be  identified  and  their  needs  satisfied.  All  grease 
cups  and  spring  oilers  should  receive  attention,  and  if  there  are  moving 
parts  not  so  provided  oil  should  be  supplied  to  them  in  some  manner, 
either  through  the  holes  sometimes  drilled  for  this  purpose  or  by  squirting 
oil,  as  best  one  can,  between  the  frictional  surfaces.  Such  parts  as  control 
device  linkages,  parts  of  the  brakes,  torque  and  distance  rods,  parts  of  the 
steering  gear  and  spring  hangers  should  receive  careful  attention.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  nothing  should  be  taken  for  granted  in  the 
lubrication  of  an  automobile.  The  plugs  designed  for  the  drawing  off 
of  the  spent  oil  from  crank  and  gear  cases  should  be  carefully  looked  after 
to  see  that  they  cannot  drop  out  while  running.  If  an  undue  amount  of 
oil  drips  from  any  particular  point  of  the  machine  it  may  indicate  either 
that  the  supply  is  excessive,  that  means  for  retaining  it  are  not  proper,  or 
that  the  oil  is  too  thin.  Thick  oil,  on  the  whole,  gives  little  trouble  from 
working  out  of  bearings,  especially  when  everything  is  hot.  A  great  many 
"pointers"  in  regard  to  the  lubrication  of  a  machine  are  likely  to  be 
obtained  when  cleaning  it.  The  "wiping  off"  of  a  machine  is  a  duty  which 
no  one  having  the  instincts  of  a  mechanic  will  shirk,  as  the  dust  which 
an  excess  of  oil  on  the  outside  surfaces  of  the  wearing  parts  is  constantly 
collecting  proves  very  injurious  to  the  mechanism. 


How   to    Locate   Abnormal    Friction   in   the   Moving   Parts. 

(ALBERT   L.    CLOUGH.) 

It  not  infrequently  happens  that  an  automobile  motor  is  blamed  for  a 
loss  of  power  with  which  it  is  not  justly  chargeable,  the  fact  of  the  case 
sometimes  being  that  there  is  an  unusual  drag  imposed  upon  the  engine 
owing  to  some  portion  of  the  car  having  developed  an  abnormal  fric- 
tional resistance  through  lack  of  lubrication  or  some  other  cause.  This 
supposed  lack  of  power  is  generally  first  realized  from  the  development 
of  an  inability  to  surmount  certain  grades  on  the  high  gear  which  have 
customarily  been  negotiated  by  it  with  comparative  ease;  or  it  may  make 
itself  felt  by  its  becoming  necessary  to  open  the  throttle  wider  than  usual 
in  order  to  gain  a  certain  speed  upon  the  level. 

Before  assuming  that  the  engine  rs  weak  it  is  well  to  try  the  experi- 
ment of  pushing  the  car  by  hand,  both  backward  and  forward,  over  the 
level  stable  floor,  with  clutch  and  brakes  in  their  released  positions  and 
noting  whether  more  effort  than  usual  is  required.  In  order  to  judge 
of  this  one  should  become  accustomed  to  the  amount  of  force  normally 
required  to  move  the  vehicle  under  these  conditions.  If  the  car  has 
sliding  gears,  the  experiment  should  be  tried  with  the  "high"  in  engage- 
ment. Then,  too,  a  'little  attention  paid  to  the  action  of  the  car  while 
coasting,  free  from  the  engine,  may  be  of  value  in  this  connection.  If 

133 


the  machine  fails  to  run  by  gravity  as  far  as  usual  upon  a  certain  grade 
under  ordinary  road  conditions,  something  may  be  binding  and  holding 
the  vehicle  back,  producing  an  effect  which,  under  other  conditions,  might 
not  unnaturally  be  attributed  to  loss  of  engine  power. 
GEAR   SETTING   FOR   COASTING. 

When  a  machine  with  sliding  gears  is  allowed  to  coast,  the  gears  should 
either  be  thrown  out  of  mesh — that  is,  into  the  "neutral"  position,  so  that 
none  of  them  are  turning  at  all — or,  still  better,  as  far  as  the  present  pur- 
pose is  concerned,  should  be  placed  in  the  "high"  position,  so  that  they 
may  be  revolving  at  a  minimum  speed  and  thus  consuming  the  least  possi- 
ble amount  of  power. 

Careful  attention  paid  to  the  force  required  to  push  the  car  and  to 
its  coasting  ability  will  generally  enable  one  to  discriminate  between  faulty 
operation  due  to  a  weak  engine  and  sluggish  action  of  the  car  due  to 
unusual  frictional  resistance. 

LOCAL   HEATING   A   GUIDE. 

If  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  some  moving  part  is  demanding  an 
abnormal  amount  of  power,  it  becomes  necessary  to  locate  the  difficulty. 
Just  after  the  machine  has  come  in  from  a  brisk  run  one  may  sometimes 
determine  where  the  difficulty  is  by  searching  for  signs  of  heat  by  means 
of  the  hand — feeling  the  front  and  rear  bearings  and  those  of  the  counter- 
shaft, the  brake  bands,  drums  and  shoes,' the  clutch  drums  and  bands,  if 
a  planetary  gear  is  used,  and  the  bearings  of  the  change  speed  gear  shafts, 
as  well  as  the  bearings  of  the  shaft  drive  (in  case  one  is  employed). 
BLOCKING  CAR  UP. 

It  is  a  still  better  arrangement  to  block  the  front  wheels  clear  of  the 
floor  (securely,  so  that  there  shall  be  no  danger  of  the  machine  running 
away)  and  to  run  the  car  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  on  the  high 
gear  and  then  feel  for  evidences  of  heat  at  the  points  above  enumerated. 
The  front  wheels  may  be  jacked  up  and  spun  by  hand  and  any  lack  of 
freedom  in  their  motions  noted  and  corrected.  Perhaps  their  ball  or  roller 
bearings  may  be  in  too  tight  adjustment,  a  ball  may  be  broken  or  a  cone 
may  have  proved  soft  and  become  badly  cut,  or  lack  of  sufficient  lubrica- 
tion may  be  the  only  trouble.  A  good  opportunity  will  also  be  afforded 
to  see  whether  the  chain  is  running  freely,  without  any  tendency  to  ride 
the  sprockets  either  on  the  forward  or  reverse  motions.  When  blocked  up 
the  engine  ought  not  to  be  slowed  down  perceptibly  when  the  high  speed 
clutch  is  engaged,  except  at  the  instant  when  the  connection  is  made. 
Any  large  loss  of  engine  speed  may  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  the 
presence  of  unusual  friction. 

In  case  any  evidence  of  heat  is  found  in  the  rear  wheel  or  axle  bear- 
ings, it  may  be  due  to  defective  adjustment,  broken  balls  or  rollers  or  to 
lack  of  lubrication,  and  the  cause  should  at  once  be  removed  so  that  the 
rear  axle  will  spin  freely. 

DRAGGING   BRAKES. 

If  the  brakes  are  found  to  become  heated,  an  adjustment  may  usually 
be  found  which  will  secure  the  complete  freeing  of  the  braking  surfaces 
when  the  brakes  are  off,  and  still  not  prevent  their  effective  engagement 
when  applied.  A  dragging  clutch  band  of  a  planetary  gear  is  likely  to 
become  evident  when  the  machine  is  jacked  up,  as  motion  may  be  com- 

134 


municated  to  the  wheels  although  the  clutch  is  nominally  thrown  out. 
This  is  a  matter  of  adjustment  which  can  usually  be  handled  without  much 
difficulty.  If  lubrication  has  not  been  continuously  furnished  to  the  shafts 
of  the  change  speed  gear,  they  will  waste  a  great  deal  of  power,  and  this 
will  also  be  the  case  if  the  gear  case  is  too  full  of  viscous  lubricant.  In 
machines  employing  sliding  gears  the  manual  power  required  to  spin  the 
rear  wheels  with  the  gear  shifter  in  its  neutral  position  and  with  the 
shifter  on  "high"  may  both  be  noted,  and  some  idea  gained  as  to  whether 
the  gear  shafts  are  running  as  freely  as  ought  to  be  expected. 
EXCESSIVE  ENGINE  FRICTION. 

Internal  friction  in  the  engine  may  also  be  a  cause  of  the  faulty  per- 
formance of  the  car.  If,  with  the  relief  cocks  open,  the  motor  does  not 
crank  with  perfect  freedom,  even  after  a  hard  run,  it  may  well  be  that, 
although  it  develops  its  full  power,  a  considerable  proportion  of  it  is 
wasted  in  overcoming  piston  or  bearing  friction. 

The  main  bearings  or  those  of  the  secondary  shaft  may  be  dry,  or 
their  shafts  may  have  become  sprung  through  some  accident.  Possibly 
the  supply  of  oil  to  the  pistons  may  be  insufficient,  in  which  case  the  loss 
of  effective  power  may  be  almost  complete,  and  easily  detected  by  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  cooling  wafer  boils  away.  Copious  lubrication 
is  the  obvious  remedy  for  these  difficulties. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  frequent  attention  to  the  easy  running 
qualities  of  the  car  as  a  wheeled  vehicle,  and  to  the  freedom  of  move- 
ment of  the  engine  and  all  shafts  related  to  the  transmission  of  the 
power,  often  results  in  clearing  the  motor  of  an  unjust  imputation  of 
shirking  its  duty.  It  may  also  have  the  result  of  greatly  reducing  the 
fuel  bill,  adding  considerably  to  the  life  of  wearing  parts  and  of  increas- 
ing very  noticeably  the  speed  and  hill  climbing  power  of  the  car.  A  good 
practice  is  to  push  the  car  by  hand  over  the  stable  floor  on  each  occasion 
when  it  returns  from  a  run,  both  forward  and  backward,  and  also  to 
crank  the  engine  over  a  few  times.  In  that  way  such  a  degree  of  famil- 
iarity in  regard  to  the  car's  running  qualities  is  achieved  that  any  changes 
therein  are  immediately  noticed. 


•35 


TIRES. 


In  the  operation  of  an  automobile  the  outlay  for  pneumatic  tire^s  is 
ordinarily  much  larger  than  any  other  single  item  of  expense,  and  it  is, 
furthermore,  in  great  measure  modified  by  the  degree  of  care  bestowed 
by  the  user  upon  this  part  of  the  equipment.  The  subject  is  thus  of  the 
first  importance. 

In  the  following  pages  most  of  the  instructions  offered  refer  to  the 
clincher  type  of  tire,  but  are,  in  general,  applicable  to  the  mechanically 
fastened  tires  which  are  now  rapidly  being  adopted  upon  motor  cars. 
It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  two  classes  of  tire  are  identical  in  prin- 
ciple and  material,  subject  to  the  same  accidents,  affected  by  the  same 
conditions  and  differing  essentially  only  in  the  method  of  attachment. 


Attaching  and   Detaching  Clincher  Tires. 

Although  the  exact  method  of  procedure  in  any  given  case  is  dependent 
largely  upon  conditions  peculiar  to  that  case,  such,  for  instance,  as  the 
ease  with  which  the  tire  can  be  reached  under  the  mud  guards,  etc.,  and 
the  climatic  conditions  under  which  the  work  must  be  done — there  are 


FIG.  73A.  FIG.  74. 

certain  general  rules  which  should  be  followed,  and  possibly  some  "use- 
ful hints,"  based  on  practical  experience,  which  may  be  taken  advantage 
of  to  make  the  attaching  or  detaching  of  clincher  tires  a  task  less  burden- 
some. 

Before  any  effort  is  made  to  detach  a  tire  it  is  essential  that  absolutely 
all  of  the  air  pressure  within  the  tire  be  released.  This  can  best  be  done 
by  removing  the  plunger  completely  from  the  valve,  by  means  of  the 
miniature  screwdriver  or  spanner  formed  in  the  end  of  the  valve  cap. 
The  alternative  of  holding  the  valve  open  with  a  pointed  instrument  is 

136 


more  laborious,  and  not  nearly  so  efficient,  either  in  point  of  time  con- 
sumed or  in  the  thoroughness  with  which  the  air  is  expelled. 

Next  remove  the  nuts  from  the  retaining  studs  and  valve  stem,  and 
push  the  studs  and  the  stem  through  the  rim  and,  if  possible,  entirely 
clear  of  it,  using  a  small  rod  to  complete  the  operation.  If  the  studs  are 
only  partially  released,  they  are  apt  to  seriously  interfere  with  the  clearing 
of  the  shoulders  on  the  shoe  from  beneath  the  edges  of  the  rim.  When 
all  nuts  are  removed  and  the  shoe  cleared,  grasp  the  tire  with  both  hands, 
the  thumbs  pressing  against  it  near  the  outside  edge  of  the  rim.  Pull 
the  top  of  the  tire  outward,  and  at  the  same  time  press  inward  with  the 
thumbs  against  the  lower  part  to  clear  the  tire  beneath  the  edge  of  the 
rim  (Fig.  73A).  Next,  as  part  of  the  same  operation,  push  the  top  of 
the  tire  in  toward  the  car  and  down  toward  the  bottom  of  the  opposite 
wheel,  until  a  space  is  visible  between  the  tire  and  the  rim  of  the  wheel 
(Fig.  74).  Continue  this  operation  completely  around  the  periphery  of 
the  tire  before  attempting  to  use  the  levers. 

It  is  usually  possible  to  apply  greater  strength  in  this  manipulation 
if  the  wheel  rests  on  the  ground,  and  the  axle  should  therefore  not  be 
jacked  up  until  the  operation  is  completed. 

While  pushing  the  top  of  the  tire  in  toward  the  car  with  one  hand, 
insert  the  end  of  a  lever  between  it  and  the  rim,  after  the  manner  shown 
in  Fig.  75.  Push  the  lever  down  until  it 
assumes  a  horizontal  position  and  thereby 
raises  the  edge  of  the  tire  from  the  rim. 
While  holding  thus  with  one  hand,  insert  the 
end  of  a  second  lever  in  a  similar  manner 
at  a  point  not  more  than  4  inches  from  the 
first.  Push  down  the  ends  of  both  levers 
until  the  edge  of  the  outer  shoe  slips  out 
clear  from  the  rim.  Remove  one  lever,  and 
in  order  to  prevent  the  tire  from  springing 
back  into  position  again,  hold  the  other  lever 
in  the  vertical  position  by  grasping  a  spoke 
with  the  same  hand.  Insert  the  free  tool  FIG.  75. 

beneath  the  edge  of  the  tire  again  and  pry 

off  another  short  length.  The  smaller  the  length  of  tire  cleared  from 
the  rim  each  time,  the  smaller  will  be  the  physical  exertion  necessary  to 
accomplish  it. 

If  it  is  desired  to  repair  or  replace  the  inner  tube,  it  is  doubtful  if 
much  time  or  labor  is  saved  by  removing  simply  the  outer  edge  of  the 
shoe.  In  fact,  it  is  desirable  for  many  reasons  to  remove  the. tire  com- 
pletely. It  is  accomplished  comparatively  easily  after  the  first  edge  is 
detached,  and  a  more  careful  inspection  of  the  inside  of  the  shoe  is  pos- 
sible when  it  is  off  the  rim.  Again,  there  is  less  likelihood  of  pinching 
or  creasing  the  inner  tube  while  replacing.  If  the  tube  is  caught  either 
between  the  rim  and  the  outer  shoe,  or  between  the  outer  shoe  and  a 
retaining  stud,  in  the  manner  shown  in  Figs.  76  and  77,  trouble  is  sure 
to  result,  and  if  the  tube  is  carefully  fitted  within  the  shoe  and  partially 
inflated  while  the  shoe  is  completely  detached,  there  is  less  chance  for 
this  "pinching"  to  occur  than  there  is  when  the  tube  is  worked  little  by 

137 


little  into  the  shoe  as  it  remains  on  the  rim.  Only  a  very  slight  inflation 
is  necessary,  and  if  too  great  a  pressure  is  pumped  up  the  operation  of 
attaching  is  made  more  difficult. 

On  replacing  the  tire,  first  insert  the  valve  stem  in  its  proper  hole 
and  work  the  shoulders  on  the  tire  in  under  the  edges  of  the  rim  for 
a  distance  of  about  3  inches  on  each  side  of  the  valve.  Run  the  nut 
on  the  valve  stem  down  to  the  rim  so  that  the  valve  is  held  in  its  proper 
position.  Turn  the  wheel  until  the  valve  is  at  the  lowest  point  and 
then  lower  the  jack  so  that  the  wheel  touches  the  ground  and  is  pre- 
vented from  turning  easily.  The  retaining  studs  nearest  the  valve  stem 
can  be  fitted  with  their  heads  in  the  proper  position  between  the  lips,  as 
they  may  be  called,  of  the  outer  shoe  and  the  inner  tube.  They  can  be 
directed  into  the  holes  in  the  rim  as  the  tire  is  pushed  on  in  both  direc- 
tions up  to  the  top  of  the  wheel.  The  other  studs  should  be  placed  in 
the  rim  and  held  from  falling  out  by  running  the  nuts  on  for  a  few 
threads.  In  some  cases  it  is  possible  to  work  the  two  studs  nearest  the 


FIG.  76.  FIG.  77. 

valve  stem  through  the  rim  far  enough  to  catch  the  nuts  before  it  is 
necessary  to  resort  to  the  levers.  This  should  be  done  when  possible,  as 
it  will,  of  course,  prevent  them  from  working  out  of  position  again.  They 
should  not  be  drawn  tight,  however. 

Little  by  little  the  shoe  should  then  be  worked  on  to  the  rim  with 
the  aid  of  the  levers,  first  the  inside  edge,  then  the  outside  edge.  Fit  the 
heads  of  the  retaining  studs  into  their  proper  places  before  working  the 
shoulders  of  the  shoe  under  the  edges  of  the  rim,  taking  care  that  the 
inner  tube  is  not  "pinched."  Fit  the  portions  of  the  tire  between  the 
bolts  under  the  edges  of  the  rim  after  the  portions  at  the  bolts  have  been 
so  fitted.  The  nuts  on  the  retaining  studs  should  then  be  run  up  lightly 
with  the  fingers  and  the  tire  fully  inflated.  Hammer  well  with  a  lever 
to  insure  the  proper  fitting  of  the  tire  at  all  points,  and  finally  set  up  the 
nuts  on  the  retaining  studs  reasonably  hard,  using  a  small  wrench  for 
the  purpose. 


The  Care  of  Tires  in  Use— Wear  Due  to   Faults  in  Car. 

Even  with  careful  operation  the  tire  item  will  form  a  goodly  portion 
of  the  total  expense  in  the  operation  of  a  car,  and  through  carelessness 
and  inattention  it  may  easily  become  as  great  or  even  greater  than  all 

138 


the  other  running  expenses  added  together.  It  devolves,  therefore,  upon 
the  motorist  to  give  the  tires  every  consideration,  and  to  apply  every 
means  calculated  to  prolong  their  life.  Natural  wear,  of  course,  can- 
not be  altogether  prevented,  but  as  unnecessary  wear  may  result  from 
many  causes,  a  study  into  these  causes  should  prove  beneficial  and  enable 
the  observer  to  take  remedial  measures,  and  to  avoid  such  wear  by 
constantly  watching  for  its  causes.  Unnecessary  wear  of  the  tires  may 
be  caused  in  many  different  ways,  but  results  from  nothing  more  fre- 
quently than  an  improper  condition  or  adjustment  of  certain  parts  of  the 
car.  These  usually  are  not  found  in  a  car  when  new,  but  develop  as 
the  machine  is  used. 

IMPROPER  ALIGNMENT  OF  WHEELS. 

By  far  the  most  prevalent  of  these  causes  is  the  improper  relation- 
ship of  the  steering  wheels,  due  to  the  bending  of  the  steering  arms  or 
of  the  connecting  rod  between  the  wheels,  either  of  which  will  make 
it  impossible  to  bring  the  wheels  into  planes  parallel  with  each  other 
and  with  the  longitudinal  centre  line  of  the  frame  of  the  car.  A  drag- 
ging of  either  one  or  both  of  the  tires  of  these  wheels  over  the  ground 
will  result,  which  will  rapidly  wear  the  outside  layer  of  rubber  on  the 
outer  shoe  at  the  tread  portion  or  point  of  contact  with  the  ground. 

If  the  plane  in  which  the  wheel  rotates  is  not  parallel  with  the  line 
of  motion  of  the  car  as  a  whole,  the  tendency  of  the  wheel  to  travel 
in  two  directions  at  the  same  time  causes  this  dragging,  and  the  wear 
will  occur  in  lines  across  the  tread  at  an  Bangle  equal  to  the  angle  of 
error  in  the  position  of  the  wheel. 

If  it  is  discovered  that  the  steering  mechanism  is  in  the  condition 
indicated  above,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  accurately  locate  the  cause 
of  the  trouble  before  any  effort  is  made  to  rectify  it.  Even  if  a  steering 
arm  is  bent,  it  is  possible  to  bring  the  wheels  parallel  with  each  other 
by  adjusting  the  connecting  rod,  but  such  correction  holds  only  for  travel 
in  a  straight  line,  and  as  the  steering  angle  has  been  disturbed,  dragging 
and  wear  will  occur  in  turning  corners.  In  such  a  case  the  steering  arm 
should  be  brought  to  its  proper  position,  and  the  connecting  rod,  if  it 
is  not  bent,  will  then  bring  the  wheels  into  their  normal  position. 

If  the  front  axle  shifts  on  the  springs,  so  that  one  side  is  nearer  the 
front  end  than  the  other,  it  will  become  impossible  to  bring  the  wheels 
parallel  with  each  other  when  the  car  is  traveling  in  a  straight  line, 
and  wear  on  the  tires  will  result,  the  same  as  in  the  cases  cited  above. 
In  this  case  the  wheel  bearings  will  be  in  line  with  the  axle — which 
position  is  the  only  one  in  which  the  wheels  are  parallel  with  each  other 
— only  when  the  wheels  are  out  of  parallel  with  the  frame  of  the  car 
and  not  pointed  for  travel  in  a  straight  line.  In  holding  the  car  in  this 
direction  a  sort  of  compromise  is  reached  between  the  two  wheels, 
and  the  dragging  which  causes  wear  occurs. 

ALIGNMENT  OF  REAR  AXLE. 

The  rear  axle  should  also  be  maintained  in  a  position  at  right  angles 
with  the  longitudinal  centre  line  of  the  frame.  A  slight  variation  may 
cause  increased  wear  on  the  driving  tires,  while  a  considerable  varia 
tion  will  throw  this  wear  on  to  the  tires  of  the  steering  wheels.  This 
will  result  from  the  fact  that  in  order  to  move  in  a  straight  linr 

139 


the  car  must  travel  "crab  fashion,"  with  the  front  and  rear  wheels 
not  tracking.  To  correct  the  effect  on  the  steering,  a  turn  must  be  given 
to  the  steering  wheels,  and  they  will  therefore  be  thrown  out  of  parallel. 

If  the  car  is  fitted  with  chain  drive,  and  has  a  distance  rod  at  each 
side,  great  care  should  be  taken  in  adjusting  these,  to  see  that  they  are 
taken  up  or  let  out  the  same  amount,  so  that  the  relative  position  of  the 
axle  will  not  change. 

In  the  case  of  cars  fitted  with  bevel  gear  drive,  it  sometimes  hap- 
pens that  the  clips  over  the   springs  become  loosened,   with   the   result 
that  the  axle  shifts   along  the   springs   unevenly.     Any   such   "shifting" 
should,  of  course,  be  corrected  before  the  clips  are  tightened  again. 
MUD  GUARD  BOLTS. 

Many  tires  have  been  injured  by  being  cut  by  the  bolts  by  which  the 
guards  over  the  wheels  are  attached.  If  insufficient  clearance  is  pro- 
vided at  the  start;  if  the  springs  settle  from  long  use,  or  if  the  guard 
supports  become  bent,  it  may  happen  that  these  bolts  will  rub  the  tire 
as  the  springs  work  up  and  down  under  a  heavy  load.  Such  wear  is 
very  rapid,  and  a  single -run  may  ruin  a  tire.  It  is  most  apt  to  occur 
when  the  car  is  loaded  to  a  considerable  degree  beyond  the  normal, 
either  with  passengers  for  a  short  run,  or  with  baggage  for  touring. 
It  is,  of  course,  true  that  the  guards  should  not  strike  the  tires,  even  if 
the  springs  be  forced  down  to  the  absolute  limit,  but  such,  unfortunately, 
is  not  always  the  case. 

EFFECT  OF  BRAKES. 

The  condition  of  the  brakes  has  much  to  do  in  an  indirect  way 
with  unnecessary  wear  on  the  tires.  In  some  cases  the  brake  which  is 
habitually  used  is  so  located  that  the  braking  action  is  transmitted 
through  the  differential  and  distributed  evenly  between  the  two  road 
wheels.  Braking  shocks  are  consequently  divided,  but  even  so,  if  the 
conditions  of  the  braking  surfaces  or  the  means  of  applying  the  braking 
effort  are  such  that  a  gradual  braking  effect  cannot  be  produced,  the 
wheels  will  come  to  a  stop  sooner  than  they  should,  and  will  skid  along 
the  surface  of  the  road,  much  to  the  detriment  of  the  tires. 

Emergency  brakes  are  usually  fitted  to  the  hubs,  and  are  used  much 
more  than  their  name  would  imply.  They  should,  therefore,  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  a  discussion  of  this  sort.  Their  action  is  not  bal- 
anced by  the  differential  group,  and  it  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  pro- 
vide some  other  means  of  doing  this.  If  an  equalizing  device  is  fitted 
to  them,  the  braking  tension  is  distributed  evenly  between  the  wheels ; 
but  if  the  braking  surfaces  are  of  different  character,  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  grease  or  grit,  the  braking  effect  will  vary  accordingly,  and  one 
wheel  will  be  retarded  quicker  than  the  other,  and  will  therefore  receive 
practically  the  whole  of  the  braking  shock.  These  surfaces  should  be 
kept  in  as  nearly  the  same  condition  as  is  possible,  and  if  no  equalizing 
device  is  supplied,  the  length  of  the  rod  or  cables  connecting  to  these 
brakes  should  be  such  that  the  pressure  applied  to  the  brake  handle  is 
divided  evenly  between  the  two  brakes. 

EFFECT  OF  GRIPPING  CLUTCH. 

Another  cause  of  unnecessary  wear  on  the  driving  tires,  which  is 
peculiar  to  the  gasoline  car,  is  what  is  called  a  "gripping"  clutch.  If 

140 


through  faulty  adjustment,  an  improper  condition  of  the  frictional  sur- 
faces, or  a  poor  controlling  device,  it  is  impossible  to  allow  the  clutch 
to  grip  gradually,  the  shock  which  is  transmitted  through  the  entire  trans- 
mission system,  due  to  this  sudden  seizing,  is  finally  delivered  at  the 
tires,  and,  besides  subjecting  them  to  a  sudden  strain,  which  tends  to 
tear  the  rubber  from  the  fabric,  may  cause  them  to  skid  and  thereby  wear 
at  the  point  of  contact  with  the  ground. 

EFFECT  OF  OIL. 

The  construction  of  some  cars  and  the  carelessness  of  the  owners 
of  some  others  make  it  possible  for  oil  to  reach  the  tires  and  accumulate 
thereon.  It  is  undoubtedly  unnecessary  to  state  that  oil  is  extremely 
injurious  to  rubber,  and  if  its  reaching  the  tires  cannot  be  prevented,  its 
accumulation  should  not  be  permitted. 

Enclosed  live  axles  are  very  often  filled  too  full  of  oil,  with  the 
result  that  when  an  incline  in  the  road  is  reached  it  works  out  through 
one  outside  bearing  and  down  the  spokes  to  the  tire.  To  remove  oil 
from  a  tire,  the  safest  method  is  to  first  wipe  it  off  carefully  with  a 
dry  cloth,  and  after  this  rub  the  parts,  which  were  covered,  with  French 
chalk.  The  chalk  should  be  dusted  onto  the  cloth  and  rubbed  vigorously 
over  the  tire. 


Some   Causes  of  Abnormal   Wear. 

The  operator  should  always  try  to  avoid  the  shocks  of  a  sudden  start 
or  a  quick  stop  to  save  not  only  the  tires  but  other  parts  of  the  car 
as  well.  The  tires  are  usually  the  yielding  members  which  absorb  the 
greater  part  of  these  shocks,  and  are  therefore  the  greatest  sufferers. 
If  the  coefficient  of  friction  between  the  wheel  and  the  ground  is  suf- 
ficient to  keep  them  from  "skidding,"  they  are  submitted  to  tremendous 
strains  tending  to  tear  apart  the  rubber  and  the  fabric  in  the  outer  shoe. 
If  skidding  occurs  the  wear  on  the  tread  is  dependent  upon  the  condi- 
tion of  the  road  surface.  In  ordinary  operation  a  single  violent  stop  or 
start  does  not  ruin  the  tire,  but  each  one  weakens  the  outer  structure 
of  the  cover  to  an  extent  and  hastens  the  end  of  the  tire's  usefulness. 

The  tires  are  also  subject  to  unusual  strains  in  turning  at  speed, 
the  side  strains  thus  created  pending  to  tear  them  from  the  rim  and  to 
"skid"  them  sidewise  over  the  road,  both  of  which  actions  are,  of 
course,  detrimental. 

An  important  cause  of  wear  on  the  tires  of  cars  that  are  fre- 
quently stopped  in  the  course  of  a  run — a  doctor's  car,  for  instance — 
is  the  rubbing  of  the  wheel  against  the  curbing.  This  will  wear  off  the 
outer  covering  of  rubber  at  the  point  of  contact,  and  allow  water  to  get 
at  and  rot  the  canvas  beneath.  In  such  cases  there  is  also  greater  danger 
of  bending  the  rim  in  places,  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  pinch  the 
shoulder  of  the  shoe  and  possibly  cut  into  it. 

EFFECT  OF  SHARP  STONES. 

Running  over  roads  covered  with  small,  sharp  stones  is  very  detri- 
mental to  tires,  and  small  bits  are  almost  sure  to  be  cut  from  the  pro- 
tecting coating  of  rubber,  and  in  some  cases  the  covering  may  be  cut 
through  to  the  fabric.  It  is  largely  due  to  such  causes  that  "blisters" 

141 


appear  on  outer  shoes.  The  only  effective  cure  for  them  is  re-vulcaniza- 
tion, and  as  this  is  a  relatively  expensive  operation  the  prevention  deserves 
every  consideration. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  more  tires  have  been  hopelessly  ruined  by  driv- 
ing that  "last  mile"  while  they  were  in  a  deflated  condition,  due  to 
a  puncture,  than  have  been  by  punctures  themselves.  The  fabric  may 
be  torn  from  the  rubber,  the  shoulders  torn  at  the  bolts,  and  the  valve 
stem  pulled  out  of  the  inner  tube.  It  is  far  better,  if  it  really  is  impos- 
sible to  repair  the  tire  on  the  road,  either  through  lack  of  time  or  of 
the  proper  tools  and  appliances,  to  remove  the  tire  completely  from  the 
rim  and  to  drive  slowly  and  carefully  in  this  manner  to  the  nearest 
harbor  of  refuge.  There  are  records  of  many  miles  traveled  with  a 
piece  of  rope  serving  the  purpose  of  a  tire,  but  the  advisability  of 
attempting  such  "makeshift"  measures  depends  entirely  upon  the  con- 
ditions peculiar  to  the  case,  and  cannot  therefore  be  discussed  in  a 
general  way. 

STEERING  WHEEL  TIRES. 

A  large  proportion  of  drivers  bring  much  unnecessary  wear  upon  the 
tires  of  the  steering  wheels  by  twisting  the  wheels  about  before  the  car 
has  been  started.  Tremendous  strains  are  thus  brought  upon  the  steer- 
ing mechanism,  the  tires  are  ground  into  the  road  surface,  and  the  outer 
covering  of  rubber  is  worn  off  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  Ordinarily 
a  sufficiently  sharp  turn  can  be  made  by  turning  the  wheels  as  the  car 
starts  to  move,  and  turning  them  while  the  car  is  stationary  is  entirely 
unnecessary.  The  grinding,  if  it  does  occur,  is  then  distributed  over  a 
larger  section  of  the  tire,  and  its  evil  effects  are  accordingly  reduced. 

CARE  OF  SPARE  TIRES. 

Proper  treatment  is  as  essential  in  the  case  of  spare  tubes  as  in  that 
of  the  tires  in  actual  use,  as  when  the  extra  tubes  are  needed  they  must 
be  in  perfect  condition.  It  often  happens  that  spare  tubes  are  carried 
about  for  a  considerable  time  before  being  put  on  the  wheels,  and  dur- 
ing this  period  they  must  be  protected  against  all  deteriorating  influences. 
Rubber  deteriorates  from  various  causes.  Light,  heat  and  oil  all 
have  a  destructive  effect  on  it,  and,  besides,  it  is,  of  course,  subject  to 
mechanical  injury.  To  put  an  inner  tube  uncovered  into  a  boxful  of 
loose  tools,  oil  cans,  etc.,  is  only  a  little  better  than  throwing  it  away. 
The  tools  will  chafe  and  the  oil  rot  it,  so  that  if  it  holds  air  at  all 
when  inflated  it  may  soon  burst  under  the  weight  of  the  car. 

Extra  inner  tubes,  to  be  carried  safely,  should  be  first  rubbed  well 
all  over  with  French  chalk  and  folded  carefully  and  tied— not  too  tightly 
— with  wide  tape.  They  should  then  be  placed  in  a  bag  made  of  soft, 
water  and  light  proof  material  which  has  also  been  carefully  dusted 
inside  with  French  chalk.  This  bag  should  then  be  carried  in  some 
part  of  the  car  where  it  will  not  be  subjected  to  heat  or  come  in  contact 
with  oil.  The  French  chalk  will  prevent  chafing  between  different  parts 
of  the  tube  and  between  the  tube  and  the  bag.  If  string  is  used  to  tie 
the  tube  it  is  likely,  if  drawn  sufficiently  tight,  to  hold  the  folds  together 
so  that  there  can  be  no  rubbing  between  them,  to  cut  into  the  rubber 
and  stretch  it  considerably  at  one  point,  with  injurious  results.  After  a 
tube  has  been  carried  a  reasonable  length  of  time,  it  is  well  to  refold 

142 


it  so  that  the  creases  will  come  in  new  places.    A  spare  tube  deteriorates 
most  quickly  at  the  sharp  bends  caused  by  the  folds. 

EXTRA  OUTER  SHOES. 

Extra  outer  shoes,  if  not  carried  on  the  car,  should  be  stored  where 
they  are  not  open  to  the  attacks  of  the  enemies  of  rubber  and  fabric- 
light,  heat  and  dampness.  If  carried  on  a  car,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
keep  them  covered  in  some  way,  so  that  they  may  be  protected  against 
all  of  these,  and  against  dust  and  chafing  as  well.  There  are  now  on 
the  market  covers  specially  made  for  this  purpose.  It  is  possible  to 
obtain  very  good  results  from  a  winding  of  rubber  cloth,  but  the  cover 
will  be  found  much  more  satisfactory,  all  things  considered,  particularly 
in  point  of  appearance. 


Wear  Due  to   Faulty  Conditions  of  Tire   Itself. 

While  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  average  motorist  has  much  to 
learn  in  regard  to  the  proper  treatment  and  care  of  pneumatic  tires,  it 
is  also  true  that  a  very  large  part  of  what  has  been  written  on  the  sub- 
ject may  be  summed  up  in  the  phrase  "Use  common  sense." 

The  properties  of  rubber  are  to  an  extent  apparent,  and  if  its  peculiari- 
ties are  kept  constantly  in  mind  by  the  automobilist,  he  is  not  likely 
to  injure  his  tires  in  handling  them.  If  he  asks  himself  as  each  problem 
presents  itself,  "Can  this  in  any  way  injure  the  rubber  or  fabric,  or  affect 
their  proper  adhesion?"  he  is  quite  certain  to  arrive  at  the  correct  con- 
clusion. Herein  lies  the  application  of  common  sense.  No  book  has  been 
made  large  enough  to  contain  all  the  detailed  "don'ts"  which  might  be 
set  down  and  should  be  followed  if  the  life  of  the  tires  is  to  be  pro- 
longed to  its  absolute  limit,  and  if  such  a  book  were  written  it  would 
be  simply  an  elaboration  on  common  sense  as  applied  to  motor  tires. 

Practical  experience  has  shown  that  excessive  wear  on  tires  is  com- 
monly produced  by  a  set  of  causes  which  have  their  origin  in  the  con- 
dition in  which  the  tires  are  kept,  and  the  frequency  with  which  this  sort 
of  wear  is  found  makes  it  possible  to  set  down  and  discuss  herein  the 
more  common  of  these  causes  without  fear  of  appearing  to  be  indulging 
in  a  statement  of  self  evident  facts. 

IMPROPER  ATTACHMENT. 

Improper  attachment  of  the  tire  to  the  rim  is  certain  to  result  in 
trouble  before  many  miles  have  been  covered.  In  an  earlier  section  it 
was  explained  how  the  inner  tube  might  be  caught  between  the  shoe 
and  the  rim,  or  between  the  shoe  and  a  retaining  stud.  The  results  of 
such  pinching  are  obvious.  The  portion  of  the  tube  near  that  which  is 
caught  is  subjected  to  increased  strains  while  in  a  stretched  condition, 
and  the  tube  will  soon  burst  or  tear  at  the  point  of  pinching.  It  may 
happen  that  the  outer  shoe  is  not  caught  properly  between  the  rim  and 
a  bolt.  If  such  be  the  case,  damage  to  the  shoe  may  result,  and,  in 
the  case  of  many  tires,  the  inner  tube  may  blow  out  through  the  space 
between  the  shoe  and  rim  near  the  improperly  set  bolt. 
BENDING  OF  RIM. 

If,  for  some  reason,  the  edge  of  a  rim  becomes  bent  in  any  way, 
the  dent  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  discovered,  for,  if  the  bend  is 

143 


inward,  a  greater  pressure  is  brought  upon  the  shoulder  of  the  shoe  at 
that  point,  and  any  chafing-  will  wear  the  outer  protecting  cover  and 
weaken  the  shoulder  at  that  point.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  bend  is 
outward,  there  is  chance  for  water,  oil  and  sand  to  work  in  between  the 
tire  and  rim.  Water  tends  to  rot  the  canvas  in  the  shoe,  to  rust  the 
rim  and  to  destroy  the  rubber,  and  sand  to  aggravate  wear  on  the  shoe. 
EFFECT  OF  RUST. 

Iron  rust,  as  is  well  known,  rots  canvas  very  quickly,  and  for  this 
reason  water  should  be  kept  from  reaching  the  rim.  Assuming  that  the 
rim  is  clean,  as,  of  course,  it  should  be,  when  the  tire  is  attached  it  may 
be  kept  so  indefinitely  if  proper  attention  is  given  to  the  wheels.  The 
retaining  bolts  and  locking  nuts  on  the  valve  stem  should  be  carefully 
inspected  at  intervals,  to  make  sure  that  they  are  drawn  sufficiently  tight 
to  prevent  any  water  from  working  in  through  the  holes  in  the  rim. 
If  they  are  not  tight,  it  is  possible  for  water  to  work  in  between  the  rim 
and  shoe,  which,  besides  causing  a  certain  amount  of  rotting  itself,  will 
soon  rust  the  rim,  and  this  rust  will  rapidly  increase  the  rate  of  decay. 
The  possibility  of  water  reaching  the  rim  also  arises  if  the  tire  is  not 
properly  inflated.  The  rusting  usually  starts  at  the  very  edge  of  the 
inside  of  the  rim,  and  if  the  faulty  conditions  which  made  its  beginning 
possible  are  not  corrected,  it  will  spread  until  it  has  reached  the  canvas, 
through  which  it  will  travel  rapidly.  If  a  rim  has  become  rusty,  even 
though  merely  in  small  spots,  such  rust  should  be  carefully  removed  with 
emery  cloth,  and  the  inside  of  the  rim  given  a  very  light  coating  of 
lacquer,  thin  shellac  or  white  lead  paint.  It  is  well  to  remove  the  tires 
from  the  rims  at  reasonable  intervals,  make  a  careful  inspection  of  the 
inside  of  the  tire  and  of  the  rim,  and  correct  any  faulty  conditions  before 
serious  harm  may  come  from  them. 

LOOSE  RETAINING  BOLTS. 

Loose  retaining  bolts  may  be  responsible  for  more  trouble  than  that 
caused  by  letting  water  into  the  tire.  If  the  bolts  do  not  clamp  the  shoe 
securely  to  the  rim,  the  latter  may  "creep"  and  thereby  bring  a  strain 
upon  the  valve  stem  which  will  tend  to  tear  it  from  the  tube.  They 
also  stimulate  wear  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  shoe  and  may  cause  a 
chafing  of  the  inner  tube.  The  tires  of  the  driving  wheels  require 
particular  attention  in  this  regard,  as  the  driving  effort  will  tend  to 
increase  the  "creeping."  In  the  case  of  the  tires  on  the  steering  wheels, 
any  slackness  of  the  bolts  may,  if  the  tire  is  not  sufficiently  inflated,  permit 
of  a  certain  amount  of  play  between  the  rim  and  shoulder,  and  in  nego- 
tiating curves  at  any  degree  of  speed  there  is  increased  likelihood  of  a 
tire  becoming  detached  for  at  least  a  portion  of  its  length,  allowing 
the  inner  tube  to  burst  out. 

Insufficient  inflation  of  a  tire  has  certain  other  evil  effects  besides 
those  mentioned.  Under  the  weight  of  the  vehicle,  a  partially  inflated 
tire  takes  the  shape  of  a  flattened  arch  the  curvature  of  the  outer  ends 
of  which  varies  in  acuteness  inversely  as  the  pressure  within  the  tire. 
As  the  wheel  revolves,  this  bending,  as  it  were,  of  the  tire  in  contact  with 
the  ground  causes  an  unequal  stretching  of  the  combined  rubber  and 
canvas  in  the  outer  shoe  which  tends  to  tear  them  apart.  Insufficient 
inflation  also  increases  the  liability  of  puncture,  as  a  larger  area  of  the 

144 


tire  surface  is  in  contact  with  the  ground  and  exposed  to  puncturing  influ- 
ences.   The  liability  of  bending  the  rim  is  also  increased. 
PRESSURE  OF  INFLATION. 

Much  theorizing  has  been  done  on  the  subject  of  proper  inflation 
pressures,  but  when  all  is  said  and  done  there  is  only  one  final  test  which 
is  of  any  practical  value.  A  tire  should  be  pumped  up  until  it  is  capable 
of  holding  its  shape,  and  yet  does  not  transmit  every  small  shock  to  the 
axles.  This  may  seem  a  bit  indefinite,  but  it  is  as  accurate  a  statement 
of  proper  tire  inflation  pressure,  all  things  considered,  as  can  be  given. 
The  pneumatic  tire  is  intended  to  absorb  all  small  road  shocks.  If  it 
is  too  highly  inflated  it  will  not  do  this,  and  if  it  is  insufficiently  inflated 
it  will  not  hold  its  shape  under  the  weight  of  the  car,  and  the  results  set 
down  herein  will  follow.  In  pumping  air  into  a  tire  an  ounce  of  com- 
mon sense  is  worth  a  column  of  pressure  tables.  However,  tire  manu- 
facturers generally  furnish  data  as  to  the  inflation  pressures  which  they 
recommend  which  are  sometimes  of  assistance,  and  tire  pressure  gauges, 
which  are  very  convenient,  are  to  be  had  of  supply  dealers. 

There  is  an  evident  lack  of  appreciation  among  motorists  of  the  impor- 
tance of  having  small  cuts  which  extend  through  the  outer  layer  of  rub- 
ber on  the  outer  shoe  sealed  up  as  soon  as  possible.  Water  and  sand 
get  into  such  cuts  and  will  in  time  cause  blisters  which  gradually  increase 
in  size  until  an  extensive  repair  is  necessary.  The  water  will  also  tend 
to  rot  the  canvas. 

It  is  well  known  that  in  a  long  run  the  tires  become  considerably 
heated.  This  heating  is  caused  largely  by  the  frictional  action  between 
the  outer  shoe  and  the  air  chamber.  To  avoid  it  to  a  degree,  French 
chalk  or  talc  or  pulverized  graphite  should  be  rubbed  over  the  inner  tube 
before  it  is  inserted  in  the  shoe;  this  acts  as  a  lubricant  and  reduces  the 
friction  between  the  two  surfaces  to  a  minimum  and  consequently 
diminishes  the  amount  of  heat  generated. 


Hints  on  Tire   Maintenance. 

(CHARLES  E.  DURYEA.) 

Very  frequently  a  weak  spot  in  the  fabric,  caused  by  water  getting 
in  or  possibly  by  a  faulty  splice  or  similar  defect,  manifests  itself  by  a 
slight  swelling,  and  this  the  owner  should  notice,  diagnose  and  repair, 
for  if  neglected  the  weak  spot  will  grow  larger,  causing  the  tire  to 
increase  in  cross  section  at  this  point  with  correspondingly  increased 
strain  on  the  fabric  and  the  certainty  of  quick  further  damage  resulting 
in  a  burst,  which  will  probably  tear  a  large  hole  in  the  air  tube  as  well 
as  in  the  casing. 

Probably  the  worst  abuse  to  which  tires  are  subjected  is  wrong  infla- 
tion. Under  excessive  inflation  every  weak  spot  in  the  tire  is  needlessly 
strained  and  it  is  not  uncommon  for  them  to  burst  when  standing  still 
in  the  garage  because  of  this  abuse. 

On  the  other  hand,  tires  are  constantly  used  with  insufficient  infla- 
tion, with  the  result  that  striking  a  stone  or  street  crossing  at  speed 
bumps  the  rim  perceptibly,  bends  the  casing  sharply,  and  often  pinches 

145 


a  hole  through  the  air  tube.  Air  tubes  that  have  seen  much  service 
frequently  show  bruises  extending  part  way  through  and  in  some  instances 
completely  through,  to  the  wonderment  of  the  user  who  fails  to  find  the 
expected  nail  that  caused  his  trouble. 

Inflation  troubles  can  be  easily  avoided  by  glancing  at  the  tire  where 
it  supports  the  load.  If  it  is  too  hard  it  will  not  show  that  it  is  carry- 
ing a  load.  If  it  is  too  soft  it  will  look  as  though  carrying  too  much. 
If  properly  inflated  it  will  widen  under  the  load  about  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  for  each  inch  of  tire  sectional  diameter. 

For  example,  a  3  inch  tire  under  load  should  measure  about  3^ 
inches  at  the  widest  part  at  the  bottom.  A  4  inch  tire  should  measure 
4l/2  inches.  It  may  be  that  these  measurements  can  be  improved  upon 
and  that  slightly  lessening  them  o'r  increasing  them,  according  to  the 
locality,  speed  at  which  the  vehicle  is  driven,  and  similar  influences, 
would  be  better,  but  for  a  general  rule  they  are  probably  as  nearly 
correct  as  anything. 

It  is  not  enough  that  the  user  should  know  that  the  tires  are  prop- 
erly inflated,  but  he  should  see  that  they  remain  so.  To  insure  this, 
one  of  the  first  things  to  be  done  when  the  vehicle  comes  in  should  be 
to  examine  the  tires  and  see  if  they  need  attention,  for  if  repairs  are 
needed  they  should  not  be  left  until  the  vehicle  is  wanted,  but  should 
be  attended  to  at  once,  in  order  that  they  may  be  completed  by  the 
time  the  vehicle  is  to  be  used.  If  they  need  inflating  this  should  be  done 
so  that  the  vehicle  may  have  some  time  to  stand  properly  inflated  before 
being  used,  in  which  event  it  may  be  seen  whether  or  not  they  are  hold- 
ing up  properly.  It  is  well  known  that  a  small  puncture  may  not  leak 
at  all  when  the  pressure  gets  below  a  certain  point,  so  that  a  leaky,  half 
inflated  tire  may  stand  all  night  in  that  condition  and  not  be  appreciably 
softer  next  morning.  It  may  be  inflated  properly  when  the  vehicle 
starts  out,  only  to  leak  down  almost  immediately  to  its  original  condi- 
tion and  be  damaged,  just  because  the  needed  inflation  was  not  given 
long  enough  before  using  to  permit  the  leak  to  be  observed.  It  is  also 
well  known  that  the  valves  commonly  used  cannot  be  depended  upon 
to  hold  air  themselves,  but  that  the  flimsy  soft  rubber  gasket  provided 
in  the  cap  and  forced  against  the  narrow  edge  of  the  valve  tube  is  the 
actual  holding  agent  in  most  cases.  There  is  no  certainty  that  this  cap 
can  be  screwed  down  tight  enough  to  hold  without  being  cut,  roughened 
or  otherwise  damaged,  and  therefore  no  certainty  when  a  tire  has  been 
inflated  that  the  valve  cap  is  in  condition  to  hold  the  inflation.  This 
is  another  reason  why  the  inflation  should  be  made  a  sufficient  time 
before  using  to  determine  whether  or  not  there  is  a  leak.  Of  course, 
this  can  be  determined  by  testing  with  a  glass  of  water,  the  valve  tube 
being  at  the  top  of  the  wheel,  so  that  it  may  project  down  into  the  water 
and  permit  escaping  bubbles  to  be  seen.  Very  few  people  will  take 
this  trouble  to  insure  that  everything  is  right,  so  the  practicexof  inflating 
the  tires  properly  when  the  vehicle  first  comes  into  the  place  and  then 
noting  their  condition  when  it  leaves  is  the  only  safe  one. 

One  should  make  sure,  by  frequent  testing,  that  the  pump  is  all  right. 
It  is  quite  common  to  test  a  pump  by  holding  one's  thumb  over  the  out- 
let nozzle  while  a  light  stroke  is  made  with  the  other  hand.  This,  in 

146 


reality,  proves  but  little.  What  the  pump  will  do  at  a  pressure  of  a  few 
pounds  is  of  no  consequence  to  a  man  in  trouble  on  the  road.  He  wants 
a  pump  capable  of  doing  its  full  duty  at  the  pressure  required  to  prop- 
erly inflate  his  tire.  The  only  certain  way  to  insure  this  is  to  use  the 
pump  that  is  in  the  vehicle  for  the  purpose  of  inflating  the  tires  of  the 
vehicle.  In  the  absence  of  this  a  sealed  or  blind  valve  can  be  attached 
to  the  pump,  and  then  one  or  more  good,  strong  strokes,  as  would  be 
required  for  proper  inflation,  should  be  made.  This  will  show  whether 
there  are  any  leaks.  Many  times  a  pump  will  have  such  a  flimsy  cup 
leather  that  under  pressure  this  leather  will  reverse  and  refuse  to  work. 
Sometimes  the  rubber  hose  will  leak  at  the  connections  or  blow  off 
completely  or  cause  other  little  troubles  not  much  in  themselves,  and 
easily  fixed  at  a  garage,  but  decidedly  aggravating  when  the  operator  has 
need  for  a  serviceable  pump  under  unpleasant  circumstances  on  the  road. 
Extra  valves  and  caps  should  always  be  carried. 

The  user  can  do  much  to  avoid  unnecessary  damage  by  seeing  that 
the  floor  of  his  stable  (and  grounds)  is  free  from  needless  obstacles 
liable  to  damage  tires  as  the  vehicle  is  moved  about.  An  overturned 
jack,  for  example,  may  present  the  sharp,  square  corner  of  a  metal  base, 
which,  if  driven  over  without  noticing,  would  almost  certainly  do  dam- 
age. Nails  or  small  tools  used  in  crating  or  other  work  should  not  be 
allowed  to  remain  on  the  floor,  and  the  curbstones  at  the  entrance  should 
not  have  sharp  corners. 

When  the  vehicle  stands  but  a  short  while  and  under  more  or  less 
constant  inspection,  the  tires  need  not  be  given  any  special  attention. 
If,  however,  the  vehicle  is  left  on  dead  storage  and  kept  where  the  tires 
are  not  inspected  it  is  advisable  to  largely  reduce  the  air  pressure  and 
also  to  jack  up  the  wheels,  so  that  if  the  air  does  leak  out  the  tires 
are  not  flattened  and  caused  to  crack  where  sharply  bent.  The  vehicle 
should  not  be  in  a  damp  place,  for  this  is  not  only  bad  for  the  mechanism 
and  wood  work,  but  the  moisture  is  absorbed  also  by  the  upholstering. 
The  fabric  of  the  tires  may  also  take  up  some  of  this  moisture,  which 
is  detrimental.  On  the  other  hand,  light  and  heat  are  injurious  to 
rubber,  and  tires  last  longest  in  a  moderately  cool  place.  If  they  can 
be  stored  in  a  cool  room,  not  exposed  to  direct  sunlight  and  kept  very 
lightly  inflated,  so  as  to  preserve  their  shape,  no  other  attention  need 
be  given  nor  can  anything  better  be  done.  If  a  powder  of  any  kind  is 
needed  to  keep  the  rubber  from  sticking  to  other  things,  talc  (French 
chalk)  is  the  proper  substance. 

If  the  tires  are  left  inflated  hard  the  fabric  is  unnecessarily  strained, 
and  if  perchance  there  is  a  wrinkle  in  the  air  tube  it  may  crack  at  this 
point  in  time.  Partial  deflation  largely  removes  these  possibilities.  If 
left  deflated  wrinkles  or  sharp  bends  are  formed,  with  the  probability 
that  the  rubber  will  crack  at  these  places  when  put  back  into  its  normal 
position. 

It  is  a  fact  that  both  oil  and  water  wet  the  surface  of  a  tire  and 
serve  to  lubricate  any  cutting  edge  or  puncturing  point  that  may  strike 
the  tire,  so  on  this  account,  if  for  no  other  reason,  oil  and  water  should 
be  kept  oflf  the  tires  as  much  as  possible.  The  wise  driver  will  avoid 
mud  holes  and  wet  surfaces  for  this  same  reason. 

147 


Tire  repairing  is  a  large  subject  and  one  difficult  to  cover  exhaustively. 
Small  cuts  in  a  tire  casing  may  easily  be  fixed  by  a  portable  vulcanizer 
such  as  are  now  to  be  had.  Many  users  stop  small  cuts  by  cutting  a  piece 
of  rubber  till  it  fits  closely  and  then  cementing  the  same  in  place. 
The  weakened  spot  likely  to  result  in  a  blowout  can  be  remedied  by 
cementing  a  piece  of  canvas  on  the  inner  side  of  the  casing.  This  treat- 
ment will  also  cure  for  a  short  while  a  large  puncture  or  even  a  small 
burst  pending  the  time  when  it  can  be  properly  repaired  by  vulcanization. 

Tires  should  be  watched  for  rim  cutting  and  the  cause  removed. 
Generally  it  will  be  found  that  either  the  tire  is  run  too  soft  or  that 
it  does  not  fit  the  rim,  or  that  the  rim  is  rough.  In  case  it  does  not  fit, 
a  little  canvas  along  the  portion  that  is  chafing  will  frequently  stop  the 
trouble.  If  rough,  the  .rim  should  be  smoothed  with  a  file  or  sandpaper 
and  painted  or  varnished  to  prevent  recurrence. 

Constant  care  is  the  price  of  good  results  with  pneumatic  tires,  but 
as  something  cannot  be  had  for  nothing,  things  are  usually  worth  the 
labor  they  cost. 


Road  Repairs  of  Pneumatic  Tires. 

The  thoughtful  automobilist  will  always  carry  spare  inner  tubes  on 
his  car,  and  to  him  a  road  repair  will  usually  mean  the  insertion  of 
another  inner  tube.  But  as  it  sometimes  happens  that  in  a  single  run 
the  number  of  punctures  is  greater  than  the  number  of  inner  tubes 
carried,  it  may  become  necessary  for  even  the  most  careful  to  put  a 
damaged  inner  tube  into  condition  to  hold  air.  With  skill  and  experience, 
it  is  possible  to  effect  repairs  of  extremely  bad  punctures,  but  to  insure 
success  in  even  the  simplest  case,  it  is  essential  that  certain  simple  rules 
be  followed  religiously. 

For  the  smallest  puncture,  a  patch  2  inches  in  diameter  should  be  used. 
The  surface  of  the  tube  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  for  a  space  of  at 
least  half  an  inch  larger  in  diameter  than  the  patch  to  be  applied,  by  first 
rubbing  hard  with  a  bit  of  waste  or  cloth, 
moistened  with  benzine  or  gasoline,  until  all 
traces  of  chalk  or  sulphur  have  been  removed, 
and  then  slightly  roughing  up  the  surface  of 
the  rubber  with  very  fine  sand  paper.  It  is 
best  to  use  the  prepared  patches  which  are 
procurable  from  the  tire  makers,  but  if  a 
patch  cut  from  an  old  inner  tube  be  employed 
this  should  be  carefully  treated  on  the  under 
side  in  the  manner  indicated  above,  and  the 
edges  beveled,  as  shown  in  Fig.  78.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  cut  the  patch  of  circular  shape,  as  a 
square  patch  will  start  to  come  off  compara- 
tively easily  at  the  corners.  Cover  the  patch 
and  cleaned  space  on  the  tube  with  a  thin 
coating  of  high  grade,  heavy  rubber  cement  (inferior  grades  are  worse 
than  useless),  and  allow  it  to  thoroughly  dry;  then  apply  a  second  coating. 
When  the  second  coating  has  become  "tacky"  (i.  e.,  not  moist,  but  will 

148 


THE  HORSELESS  AOE 
FIG.  78.— TIRE  PATCH. 


stick  to  the  fingers  when  touched)  the  patch  can  be  applied.  Hammer  it 
well  with  a  bit  of  wood  and  allow  it  a  minute  or  so  in  which  to  "set" 
before  pumping  air  into  the  tube.  It  is  most  important  that  the  sur- 
face of  the  tube  and  the  patch  be  cleaned  thoroughly.  If  this  is  not 
done,  failure  is  almost  sure  to  ensue.  It  is  also  necessary  to  wait  until 
the  cement  is  quite  dry  and  "tacky"  before  applying  the  patch.  A  moment 
spent  in  waiting  at  this  point  of  the  operation  will  save  many  repairs 
later  on. 

The  treatment  of  cuts  and  gashes  in  inner  tubes  is  a  more  difficult 
matter;  but  many  cases  are  on  record  wherein  cuts  several  inches  in 
length  have  been  successfully  closed  by  carefully  following  the  rules  set 
down  above,  the  operation,  of  course,  being  carried  on  on  a  larger  scale 
than  would  be  necessary  for  a  small  puncture.  If  good  cement  is  used, 
the  surfaces  are  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  adequate  patches  are  applied, 
a  very  bad  injury  may  be  healed,  and  the  tube  used  for  many  miles. 

Some  motorists  obtain  good  results  in  patching  inner  tubes  from 
the  use  of  the  acid  cure  process,  which  employs  the  vulcanizing  effect  of 
chloride  of  sulphur.  It  is  claimed  that  patches  cemented  by  this  process 
stick  better  than  when  cement  alone  is  used. 

If  the  injury  to  the  inner  tube  results  from  some  internal  trouble, 
such  as  the  pinching  of  the  tube  between  other  parts  of  the  tire,  no 
attention  need,  of  course,  be  given  to  the  outer  shoe,  further  than  to 
make  sure  that  the  conditions  which  caused  the  injury  to  the  inner  tube 
are  eradicated;  but  if  a  nail  has  punctured  it,  or  it  has  been  cut  by  a 
sharp  stone,  or  the  like,  and  no  spare  shoe  is  at  hand,  it  is  necessary  to 
give  it  attention,  the  amount  depending  upon  the  extent  of  the  injury. 

In  the  case  of  a  nail  puncture  the  hole  in  the  outer  shoe  should  be 
covered  by  sticking  on  a  bit  of  the  prepared  canvas,  which  the  tire 
makers  can  supply,  in  order  to  prevent 
water  and  grit  from  working  in  be- 
tween the  inner  and  outer  tubes.  To  do 
this,  the  same  rules  must  be  followed  as 
in  the  case  of  applying  a  patch  to  the 
inner  tube.  Use  wood  alcohol,  benzine 
or  gasoline  in  limited  quantities  to  re-, 
move  the  French  chalk  or  talc  which  may 
be  present.  Water  will  not  dry  readily 
and  will  therefore  prevent  the  patch  from 
sticking  properly.  Furthermore,  it  will 
rot  the  canvas  if  the  hole  is  sealed  so 
that  it  cannot  entirely  evaporate.  As  a 
further  precaution,  a  small  amount  of 
cement  should  be  carefully  worked  into  FIG.  79- 

the  hole  from  the  outside. 

In  cases  of  cuts  which  extend  through  the  outer  shoe,  a  strip  of 
canvas  sufficiently  wide  to  cover  the  cut  completely  and  to  extend 
beyond  on  each  side,  and  long  enough  to  catch  between  the  shoulder 
of  the  outer  shoe  and  the  rim,  should  be  fitted  on  the  inside  of  the  shoe 
before  the  inner  tube  is  inserted  (Fig.  79).  This  strip  should  fit  closely 
to  the  inside  of  the  shoe,  and  it  is  well  to  attach  it  to  it  for  at  least  a 

149 


part  of  its  length,  by  using  cement.  The  object  of  this  strip  is  to  pre- 
vent the  tube  from  blowing  out  through  the  cut,  and  it  should  there- 
fore be  drawn  sufficiently  tight  when  the  tire  is  attached  to  the  rim  to 
form  a  supporting  band  about  the  tube.  Emergency  inner  shoes  or  patches 
of  leather  or  other  materials  adapted  to  this  use  are,  to  be  obtained. 

In  replacing  the  tire  the  inner  tube  should  be  rubbed  well  with  talc 
or  French  chalk,  or  with  graphite,  and  inserted,  if  possible,  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  patch  will  not  come  against  the  cut  in  the  shoe,  and 
care  should  be  used  that  the  loose  ends  of  the  canvas  strip  are  securely 
caught  between  the  shoulders  of  the  tire  and  the  edges  of  the  rim. 


THC    HOftSCXtSS   AGE 


FIG.  80. — THE  SLEEVE  IN  PLACE. 


FIG.  81.— TIRE  STRAP. 


After  a  slight  inflation,  a  leather  sleeve,  such  as  is  now  on  the  market 
for  such  purposes,  should  be  laced  tightly  about  the  tire  and  the  rim 
at  the  point  of  injury,  a,s  is  shown  in  Fig.  80,  and  when  this  is  done 
the  tire  may  be  fully  inflated. 

If  a  strap  be  used  in  place  of  the  leather  sleeve  it  should  be  wound 
about  the  tire  and  rim  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  81.  Each  winding 
should  overlap  the  previous  one,  and  the  winding  should  be  done  in 
such  a  direction  as  will  bring  the  uncovered  edges  toward  the  rear  of 
the  car  when  the  strap  is  at  the  top  of  the  wheel. 

The  sleeve  or  strap,  when  properly  applied,  not  only  affords  a  sup- 
port to  the  injured  shoe,  but  also  prevents  dirt  and  water  from  work- 
ing into  the  cut,  and  an  aggravation  of  the  injury  by  the  contact  of 
the  wheel  with  the  ground. 


The  Tire   Repair  Outfit. 

A  substantial  tire  repair  outfit  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  equipment 
of  any  car.  It  is  a  great  waste  of  time  and  effort  to  attempt  to  repair 
a  damaged  automobile  tire  without  the  aid  of  good  sized  levers  and 
large  patches,  and  the  experienced  operator  is  therefore  quite  willing  to 
give  to  tire  implements  a  good  proportion  of  the  available  space  in  his 
tool  box. 

There  are  many  appliances  which  may  be  included  in  a  repair  set 
as  "luxuries"  which  are  well  to  carry  if  they  do  not  occupy  space  that 

ISO 


might  be  employed  to  better  advantage ;  but  there  are  a   few  which  are 
"necessities,"  and  for  these  space  must  be  provided. 

There  should  be  at  least  two,  and  preferably  three,  metal  levers  of 
not  less  than  a   foot  in  length,  an  inch  in  width  and  a  quarter  inch  thick, 

slightly  tapering  at  one  end. 

I  q]  S]  ^  — ~ v    They   may  be  of  any  of   a 

I gj-  d  _«jE  —)  J    number  of  common  shapes, 

but  experience  has  shown 
that  those  illustrated  in 
Figs.  82  and  83  meet  re- 
quirements in  a  very  satis- 
factory manner.  The  lever 


FIGS.  82  AND  83. — CLINCHER  TIRE  TOOLS 


shown  in  Fig.  82  is  useful  in  holding  up  the  outer  edge  of  the  shoe  while 
the  valve  stem  or  a  retaining  bolt  is  being  put  in  place,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  84.  The  tool  shown  in  Fig.  83  is  helpful  in  detaching  a  casing 
which  has  rusted  to  its  rim,  and  in  forcing  it  back  into  place. 

Much  could  be  said  on  the  subject  of  cement.  It  is  a  substance 
which  varies  much  in  quality,  -but  none  but  the  best  is  good  enough  for 
tire  repair  work.  It  is  useless  to  spend  time 
with  inferior  grades,  as  the  difference  in 
price  is  not  nearly  proportional  to  the  dif- 
ference in  adhesive  qualities.  It  is  well  to 
have  on  hand  at  least  a  half  pint  of  heavy 
black  cement  in  an  airtight  tin  can.  The 
small  tubes  put  up  for  the  bicycle  trade  do 
not  hold  a  sufficient  quantity,  and  the  cement 
employed  is  far  too  light  for  this  heavier 
class  of  work. 

An  assortment  of  prepared  rubber  patches 
of  various  sizes  can  be  obtained  from  nearly 
all  tire  makers.  They  are  specially  treated 
on  the  under  side,  so  that  they  will  stick  well, 
and  are  usually  circular  in  shape  with 

beveled  edges,  so  that  they  are  not  easily  torn  off.  It  is  well  to  carry 
also  a  good  sized  piece  of  rubber  from  a  discarded  inner  tube,  from  which 
patches  of  irregular  shape  can  be  cut  if  necessary. 

For  patching  holes  in  the  outer  shoe,  two  or  three  pieces,  about  a 
foot  square  each,  of  prepared  canvas,  such  as  the  tire  manufacturers 
can  supply,  should  also  be  included.  It  is  light  and  can  be  folded  to 
occupy  very  little  space,  so  that  it  will  cause  no  inconvenience,  while 
an  abundance  of  repair  material  may  prove  extremely  handy  in  case 
of  an  accident  to  a  cover  in  an  out  of  the  way  place. 

A  sheet  or  two  of  sandpaper  is  necessary  for  use  in  cleaning  and 
roughing  up  the  surface  of  the  rubber  before  the  cement  is  applied. 

Talc  or  French  chalk  should  be  rubbed  over  the  inner  tube  before 
it  is  inserted  in  the  shoe,  as  it  acts  as  a  lubricant,  and  prevents  to  a 
considerable  degree  the  heating  of  the  tire  caused  by  the  frictional  action 
between  the  outer  shoe  and  the  air  chamber.  A  wooden  box  of  tubular 
shape  about  i  inch  in  diameter  by  6  or  7  inches  long,  having  a  screw 
top,  will  hold  a  sufficient  amount  of  powder  for  several  applications. 


THE  HORSELESS  AQE 


FIG.  84. 


Of  late,  powdered  graphite  has  been  very  highly  recommended  as 
a  substitute  for  talc  for  lubricating  the  inside  surfaces  of  casings  and 
the  outsides  of  inner  tubes.  Its  use  does  not  harm  the  rubber  and  it 
appears  to  be  a  much  better  lubricant  than  talc,  as  tires  treated  with 
it  heat  much  less,  and  there  is  thus  less  energy  wasted  and  less  liability 
incurred  of  patches  becoming  detached.  It  is  best  applied  from  a  com- 
mon squirt  can,  from  which  the  graphite  may  readily  be  ejected  in  the 
desired  quantities.  The  powder  is  then  thoroughly  rubbed  into  the  rubber 
with  the  ringers  or  a  brush,  where  it  stays  better  than  does  talc.  If 
thoroughly  applied  it  tends  to  prevent  rusting,  and  thus  renders  easier 
the  removal  of  the  tire. 

When  the  outer  layer  of  rubber  on  the  tire  shoe  becomes  cut  through, 
it  is  necessary  to  prevent  dirt  and  water  from  working  into  this  cut;  and 
in  extreme  cases,  when  the  fabric  is  also  cut,  it  is  necessary  to  give  to 
the  tire  at  this  point  an  external  support,  to  prevent  the  bursting  through 
of  the  inner  tube.    The  leather  or  rawhide  sleeve  shown  in  Fig.  85  accom- 
plishes both  these  objects  ad- 
mirably.   As  is  clearly  shown 
in   the   sketch,   it   is   so   con- 
structed  that  it  conforms  to 
the  shape  of  the  tire,  and  can 
be    fastened   tightly   about   it 
by  means  of  the  hooks  and 
lacing     shown.       It     is,     of 
FIG.  85. — TIRE  SLEEVE.  course,  possible  to  obtain  the 

same  results  for  a  time  by  the 

use  of  a  strap  which  may  be  wound  about  the  tire,  but  the  leather  sleeve 
is  more  substantial,  and  when  properly  applied  will  permit  of  running  on 
a  badly  damaged  tire  for  many  miles. 

Blow-out  patches  or  reinforcements  made  of  leather  or  other  materials 
and  intended  to  be  inserted  between  the  inner  tube  and  the  casing  are 
also  considerably  used. 

It  is  well,  also,  to  include  in  the  kit  extra  valves,  washers  and  caps 
for  the  valves,  and  one  or  two  extra  retaining  bolts.  A  round  rod  about 
6  inches  long,  of  such  diameter  that  it  will  pass  freely  through  the  bolt 
holes  in  the  rim,  will  be  found  handy  in  pushing  these  bolts  free  from 
the  rim  when  a  tire  is  to  be  detached.  These  sundries  do  not  take  up 
any  great  amount  of  space,  and  may  be  found  to  be  well  worth  the 
room  they  occupy. 

Whenever  a  repair  is  made,  the  tire  requires  to  be  pumped  up  again 
and  a  tire  pump  must  therefore  constantly  be  carried.  A  strong,  well 
made  pump,  even  if  it  costs  a  little  more  than  would  seem  to  the 
uninitiated  to  be  a  reasonable  price  for  such  an  implement,  will  soon 
pay  for  itself  in  the  satisfaction  it  gives.  In  inflating  an  automobile 
tire  to  its  proper  pressure  the  pump  is  subjected  to  tremendous  strains, 
to  withstand  which  it  must  be  strongly  made.  It  should  be  filled  with 
not  less  than  2  feet  of  the  heaviest  and  best  of  rubber  tubing,  to  the 
end  of  which  should  be  attached  a  coupling  of  generous  pro- 
portions. 

152 


Home  Tire  Repairing  and  Vulcanizing. 

(O.  H.  V.) 

A  large  number  of  automobile  owners  have  their  own  repair  shops, 
some  of  them  well  equipped  to  do  all  the  ordinary  repairs,  with  one 
exception,  and  that  the  one  most  likely  to  occur,  a  tire  repair.  A  vul- 
canizer  in  a  private  repair  shop  is  a  money  saver,  for  a  man  with 
ordinary  ability  can  soon  learn  to  make  a  repair  to  an  outer  casing  or 
inner  tube  that  will  save  him  a  lot  of  time,  trouble  and  expense.  A 
vulcanizer  can  be  purchased  outright,  or  if  one  is  mechanically  inclined 
and  has  the  necessary  tools  he  can  make  it.  Steam  vulcanizers  are  used 
in  nearly  all  cases  now,  as  they  are  easier  to  regulate  than  dry  heat  and 
not  so  apt  to  "cook"  or  scorch  the  work.  A  vulcanizer  (Fig.  87)  consists 
of  a  cast  iron  box  with  one  or  more  channels  or  grooves  in  it  to  receive 
the  molds  or  forms  used  in  repairing.  The  box  can  be  made  in  one 
piece  by  using  a  core  box  and  leaving  core  supports,  which  serve  for 
vents  in  the  casting  as  well,  and  can  afterward  be  tapped  and  plugged, 
or  it  can  be  made  in  two  pieces  and  bolted  together  with  either  a  ground 
joint  or  gasket  between.  If  the  casting  is  cored  it  should  have  means 
provided  for  cleaning  it  out,  as  lime  and  sediment  will  form  and  impair 
the  heating  qualities.  A  gasoline  burner  is  used  to  generate  heat,  and  a 
safety  valve,  a  steam  gauge  and  a  filling  cap  should  be  attached  to  the 
vulcanizer,  as  it  is  nothing  more  than  a  cast  iron  steam  boiler.  Of  course, 
in  large  repair  shops  and  factories  a  regular  steam  boiler  is  used  and 
steam  conveyed  to  the  vulcanizer  in  a  pipe.  The  pressure  used  is  about 
70  pounds  per  square  inch,  as  this  gives  the  required  heat  to  vulcanize 
rubber.  The  molds  (Fig.  86),  which  are  made  of  cast  iron  and  in 
halves,  are  made  the  size  and  shape  of  a  segment  of  the  tire,  and  of  course 
every  size  and  style  of  tire  requires  a  different  mold.  A  small  cut  in  an 
outer  casing  can  be  vulcanized  on  a  flat  surface,  but  if  the  repair  is  large 
or  the  fabric  torn,  a  mold  should 
be  used  to  prevent  the  tire  from 
getting  out  of  shape.  The  pre- 
paring of  a  job  for  vulcanizing  is 
what  requires  the  time,  as  each 
layer  of  cement  should  be  thor- 
oughly dry  before  the  next  one 
is  put  on,  otherwise  it  will  not 
stick.  The  cement  used  is  crude  Fj(._  ^_^QW  FOR  VULCANIZING. 
rubber,  cut  or  dissolved  in 
benzol. 

To  vulcanize  an  inner  tube  that  has  been  cut  or  blown  out,  clean  it 
around  the  blowout  with  sandpaper  or  emery  cloth,  or  wipe  it  off  with 
a  cloth  wet  in  gasoline,  then  put  powdered  soapstone  inside  the  tube  at 
the  cut  to  prevent  the  cement  from  sticking  the  tube  together;  then 
apply  a  coat  of  cement  to  the  outside  of  the  tube  around  the  edges  of 
the  blow-out  and  allow  it  lo  dry  naturally.  Then  take  a  crude  rubber 
patch  or  a  patch  with  a  crude  rubber  coating  on  one  side,  which  can 
be  purchased  from  supply  houses,  and  coat  it  with  cement  and  allow  it  to 
dry.  While  they  are  drying  unscrew  the  filjer  cap  on  the  vulcanizer  and 

153 


pour  in  water  until  about  half  full,  then  screw  in  the  plug  and  put  gasoline 
in  the  burner  and  light;  when  steam  shows  seventy  on  the  gauge  regulate 
the  fire  to  hold  it  there,  and  when  two  or  three  coats  of  cement  have  dried 
press  the  patch  on  the  inner  tube  firmly,  working  from  the  centre  to  the  out- 
side; sprinkle  a  little  soapstone  on  the  vulcanizer,  put  on  the  tube  with 
the  patch  next  the  plate  or  top  of  the  vulcanizer  and  lay  a  weight  on  it,  or 
tighten  the  top  by  means  of  the  lever  and  weight  with  which  some  vulcan- 
izers  are  fitted,  or  with  a  screw  for  flat  work,  and  let  it  cure  from  thirty 
to  sixty  minutes  and  the  rubber  and  cement  will  be  united.  To  repair  an 
outer  casing  in  which  there  is  a  cut  that  goes  through  the  fabric,  grind 
away  the  ouler  rubber  down  to  the  fabric  and  around  the  cut,  apply 
cement  the  same  as  on  inner  tube  inside  and  out,  cut  out  a  patch  of  fric- 
tion cloth  or  prepared  canvas  the  size  needed,  coat  with  cement,  and  when 


FIG.  87.— SMALL  STEAM  VULCAN IZEK. 

dry  stick  it  inside  the  casing,  after  giving  it  several  coats  of  cement.  If 
the  cut  is  a  large  one,  apply  the  prepared  canvas  on  the  outside  and  build 
up  the  required  number  of  layers  of  fabric,  each  having  been  coated 
thoroughly  with  cement.  Then  apply  the  crude  rubber  of  sufficient  size 
to  replace  the  amount  ground  off  and  place  in  the  mold,  with  an  air  tube 
inside  the  casing;  then  put  the  mold  in  one  of  the  channels  provided 
for  it  and  cure. 

A  little  practice  will  soon  produce  results,  and  in  many  cases  a  tire  can 
be  saved  to  months  of  usefulness  by  the  timely  application  of  the  vulcanizer. 
The  air  tube  is  to  hold  the  casing  in  shape  in  the  mold  until  it  is  vulcanized. 

ELECTRIC  VULCANIZERS. 

For   small   jobs   of   vulcanizing,   and    especially    for   the   vulcanization 
of  tires  by  owners  themselves,  the  electric  vulcanizer    (Fig.   87A)    is   in 

154 


quite  general  use.  Here  the  heat 
is  furnished  by  the  etectric  current 
obtained  from  the  regular  lighting 
circuits  (either  direct  or  alternat- 
ing) through  a  flexible  cord  at- 
tached to  a  lamp  socket.  The  heat 
is  developed  in  conductors  embed- 
ded in  the  metal  of  the  vulcanizer 
and  may  be  regulated  to  any  desired 
degree — a  thermostatic  device  auto- 
matically throwing  the  current  on 
or  off  as  required  to  maintain  the 
required  temperature.  These  vul- 
canizers  are  so  devised  as  to  enable 
repairs  of  inner  tubes  to  be  made, 
cuts  upon  the  tread  to  be  vulcanized 
while  the  shoes  are  in  place,  and  the 
repair  of  blow-outs  to  be  effected  by 
inserting  the  vulcanizer  within  the 
shoe,  the  heat  being  applied  from 
inside.  On  account  of  their 
small  size,  and  the  fact  that 
no  fire  or  steam  pressure  is 
required,  these  vulcanizers  are  handy  and  safe. 


FIG.   8;A.— -ELECTRIC  VULCANIZER. 
(  AUTO-  ELECK-TRICK.  ) 


Quick   Detachable  Tires. 

While  the  clincher  tire  of  bicycle  size  left  little  to  be  desired,  as  it  could 
easily  be  removed  and  replaced,  practically  without  tools,  and  punctures 
could  be  readily  repaired,  the  increase  in  size  of  the  clincher  tire  required 
to  adapt  it  to  heavy  automobile  uses  rendered  the  process  of  removal 

and  replacing  very  much  more 
difficult,  requiring  a  great  deal 
of  physical  exertion.  A  large 
variety  of  tire  tools  were  in- 
vented to  facilitate  the  removal 
and  replacement  of  the  tire 
cover,  but  with  the  large  sizes 

FIG.  88. — MIDGLEY.  Of    tjres    commonly    used    on 

modern  touring  cars  the  opera- 
tion remains  still  a  very  arduous  task.  In  the  course  of  time  it  became 
recognized  that  whatever  advantages  the  clincher  rim  might  possess  for 
tires  of  small  section,  it  was  certainly  not  the  acme  of  perfection  for 
large  tires.  To  lessen  the  difficulty  of  removing  the  tire,  a  type  of  rim 
which  may  fitly  be  described  as  a  separable  rim  made  its  appearance  on 
the  market  some  years  ago.  So  far  as  we  are  aware,  the  first  rim 
of  this  kind  to  be  actually  marketed  was  the  "Peter,"  made  in  Ger- 
many, which  made  its  appearance  about  1903.  In  the  separable  rim 
one  of  the  sides  or  beads  of  the  rim  is  bolted  to  or  otherwise  secured 


155 


HOUSELESS    IOE 


FIG.  89.— MARSH. 


to  the  rest  of  the  rim  and  can  be  removed  after  taking  out  the  bolts,  after 
which  the  tire  may  be  slipped  right  off  without  the  exertion  of  much 
physical  force.  A  large  variety  of  methods  for  joining  the  separate 

bead    to   the    main    portion    of 
the  rim  have  been  developed. 

One  difficulty  experienced 
with  this  type  of  rim  results 
from  the  tendency  of  the  parts 
to  rust  together,  so  as  to  make 
it  almost  impossible  to  remove 
the  bead.  Of  course,  no 
trouble  need  be  experienced 

from  this  cause  if  the  rim  is  properly  attended  to  in  time,  and  the 
success  of  the  separable  rim  depends,  therefore,  largely  upon  the  person 
taking  care  of  the  car. 

MIDGLEY  RIM. 

One  of  the  first  separable  rims  to  be  placed  on  the  American  market 
was  the  Midgley  rim,  which  is  manufactured  by  the  Hartford  Rubber 
Works  Company,  Hartford,  Conn.  Referring  to  Fig.  88,  A  is  the  main 
portion  of  the  rim,  secured  to  the  felloe  C,  and  B  is  the  locking  rim.  The 
rim  is  here  shown  as  set  for 
standard  clincher  tires.  It  is 
also  adapted  for  use  with  Dun- 
lop  detachable  tires,  rubber 
filler  being  inserted  in  the  left 
hand  or  inner  bead  and  the 
ring  B  reversed  when  this  type 
of  tire  is  to  be  fitted.  The 
locking  ring  is  locked  or  drawr* 
together  by  the  turnbuckle  D, 
which  is  provided  with  right 
and  left  hand  threads  and 

turned   by   means   of   a   spiral  FlG-  90.— GOODRICH. 

gear  meshing  with  the  gear  in- 
tegral with  the  threaded  shaft.     By  the  use  of  a  special  crank  provided 
for  the   purpose   the   turnbuckle   is   turned,   thus    separating   or   drawing 
together  the  two  ends  of  the  ring  B,  as  desired. 

To  remove  a  shoe,  the  two  ends  of  the  locking  ring  B  are  separated 
by  the  turnbuckle  until  the  side  opposite  can  be  pulled  out  of  the  groove. 
The  ring  is  then  lifted  up  to  remove  the  turnbuckle  and  the  shoe  slipped 
off.  To  replace  the  rim  B,  the  turnbuckle  is  first  inserted  in  the  socket, 
the  rest  of  the  ring  shoved  into  place,  and  by  the  method  already 
explained  the  two  ends  are  drawn  together  until  the  ring  is  tight  in  its 
groove.  As  this  turnbuckle  is  practically  irreversible  with  respect  to  the 
separating  tendency  of  the  ends  of  ring  B,  it  cannot  work  loose. 

THE  MARSH  SEPARABLE  RIM. 

This  rim  is  made  by  the  Diamond  Rubber  Company  for  use  with  all 
standard  clincher  tires.  A  (Fig.  89)  is  the  rim  secured  to  the  felloe  E. 
The  two  rings  B  C  are  removable,  and  C  is  held  and  locked  into  position 
by  the  internal  expanding  ring  D.  This  ring  is  locked  by  an  oval  wedge 

156 


FIG.  91. — GOODYEAR. 


on  the  spring  clip  F,  which 
rests  in  an  oval  shaped  slot  cut 
in  the  locking  ring.  To  re- 
move the  ring  the  wedge  on 
clip  F  is  first  sprung  out,  and 
the  right  hand  end  of  the  lock- 
ing ring  sprung  downward  and 
past  the  other  end,  which  re- 
leases the  ring.  The  slip  ring  C  can  now  be  removed,  and  then  the  shoe. 
To  replace  the  ring,  C  is  slipped  into  place  and -one  end  of  ring  D  started. 
The  rest  of  the  ring  is  then  expanded  to  place  and  the  wedge  snapped 
into  its  seat. 

THE   GOODRICH    RIM. 

This  rim  is  made  for  any  standard  clincher  tire.  In  Fig.  90  A  is  the 
rim,  secured  to  the  felloe  C,  and  B  the  detachable  rim  with  which  is  incor- 
porated the  locking  device.  At  each  end  of  the  ring  B  is  formed  a  hooked 
lug  integral  with  it,  which  hooks  into  the  slot  E  and  locks  in  the  following 
manner:  The  left  hand  lug  D1  is  first  slipped  into  the  outside  part  of  the 
slot  E  and  drawn  down  or  toward  the  observer  until  the  hook  engages  with 
the  rim,  and  the  dowel  pin  G 
is  central  with  a  hole  in  B, 
which  insures  locking.  The 
rest  of  ring  B  is  shoved  into 
place  and  with  a  special  tool 
with  pins,  engaging  with  holes 
F  F,  the  right  hand  end  of  the 

ring  is  drawn  up  until  lug  D2  F«J-  92.— FIRESTONE. 

can  be  slipped  into  the  inside 

half  of  the  slot  E  in  the  direction  of  arrow  2.  The  ring  is  now  drawn 
together,  and  lug  D2  can  be  drawn  outward  in  the  direction  of  arrow  I 
until  the  two  lugs  are  in  the  same  slot,  when  the  ring  is  locked.  Lug  D2 
cannot  slip  back  into  the  other  half  of  slot  E  and  thus  come  off,  because 
a  clip  on  the  valve  stem  spreads  the  beads  of  the  tire  apart  and  holds  the 
locking  lugs  into  the  outside  half  of  slot  E.  To  remove  the  shoe,  the 
dust  cap  of  the  valve  stem  is  loosened,  which  releases  the  clip.  The  beads 
are  now  free  and  the  right  hand  end  of  B  is  shoved  in  until  lug  D2  releases, 
when  the  ring  can  be  pried  out  and  the  shoe  removed. 

THE   GOODYEAR   SEPARABLE   RIM. 

This  rim,  made  by  the  Goodyear  Tire  and  Rubber  Company,  is  adapted 
for  use  with  either  clincher  or  detachable  tires,  by  the  special  shape  of 
the  slip  rings  which  permit  of  reversal  for  the  particular  type  used.  A 
rim  A  (Fig.  91)  is  secured  to  the  felloe  of  the  wheel.  The  two  slip  rings 
B  C,  owing  to  their  peculiar  shape,  can  be  reversed.  In  the  figure  they 
are  shown  set  for  a  detachable  tire.  The  locking  device  is  a  contracting 
ring  D,  the  normal  diameter  of  which  is  that  of  its  groove,  and  it  is  held 
in  place  by  its  contraction  and  the  pressure  of  the  shoe  against  B. 

To  remove  the  ring  D,  one  end  of  it  is  pried  out  of  the  groove  and  the 
rest  of  the  ring  can  then  be  worked  out,  which  releases  the  slip  ring  B, 
which  can  now  be  removed.  To  replace  the  ring  the  reverse  operation 


157 


is  performed,  the  locking 
ring  being  simply  sprung 
into  place.  The  pressure 
of  the  shoe  against  the  slip 
rings  holds  all  parts  in  firm 
contact.  The  Goodyear 
Company  uses  a  special  de- 
tachable tire  with  the  rim, 

with  a  woven  wire  tape  embedded  in  the  bead.  When  the  tire  is  inflated 
this  tape,  on  account  of  its  weave,  is  said  to  shorten  and  to  exert  a  pressure 
of  nearly  1,000  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  thus  preventing  creeping. 

FIRESTONE   SEPARABLE   RIM. 

These  rims,  the  product  of  the  Firestone  Tire  and  Rubber  Company, 
are  constructed  with  two  sets  of  rings  for  use  with  clincher  or  detachable 
tires  as  desired.  Fig.  92  shows  rings  for  detachable  tires,  A  being  the 
rim  attached  to  the  felloe  G,  B  C  the  slip  rings,  and  D  the  contracting 
locking  ring.  The  ring  C  of  both  sets  is  fitted  with  two  pins  which  fit 
into  holes  .E  of  locking  ring  D.  The  ring  D  is  locked  by  drawing  together 
the  two  ends  by  a  special  tool  with  pins  engaging  with  F,  until  the  pins 
on  C  (referred  to  above)  slip  into  the  holes  E,  these  pins  being  in  register 
with  the  holes  when  the  two  ends  of  ring  D  are  drawn  together.  By 
the  use  of  a  lug  or  spreader  on  the  valve  stem  the\tire  is  forced  against 
the  slip  rings,  which  in  turn  prevent  the  ring  D  from  jumping  off  from 
the  pins.  The  locking  ring  is  then  secured.  To  remove,  the  spreader  on 
the  valve  stem  is  released,  which  permits  ring  C  being  pressed  inwards 
until  the  pins  release  the  two  ends  of  ring  D.  The  ring  is 'then  easily 
removed,  releasing  C,  and  the  shoe  is  then  readily  taken  off.  To  replace, 
the  two  ends  of  ring  D  must  be  at  the  valve  stem.  Ring  C  is  replaced 
and  D  sprung  into  place  and  drawn  together,  as  explained  above.  The 
lug  on  the  valve  stem  is  then  drawn  up  and  D  secured. 

FISK    SEPARABLE   RIM. 

This  rim  has  been  manufactured  by  the  Fisk  Rubber  Company  for  a 
number  of  years.    A  (Fig.  93)  is  a  steel  band  secured  to  the  felloe  of  the 
wheel,  and  B  C  are  rings  that  slip  over  the  beads  of  the  tire  and  are 
held  in  place  by  clip  bolts.     D  is  the  head  of  one  of  these  bolts  and  is 
shaped  to  grip  the  ring  C  and  rim  A.    The  bolt  passes  through  a  channel 
made  in  the  bead  and  is  threaded  at  the  other 
end  to  receive  a  nut.     This  nut  holds  in  place 
another   clip,   which   likewise   grips   the   other 
slip  ring  and  rim.    The  number  of  these  bolts 
used  depends  on  the  size  of  the  tire,  a  30  inch 
tire  being  fitted  with  ten  bolts.     To  remove  a 
shoe  from  this  rim  the  nuts  E  are  removed, 
freeing  the  clip  F,  which  in   turn  allows  the 
ring  B  to  be  removed.     The  tire  can  then  be 
removed.     To  replace,  the  rings  are  slipped  in 

place  and  the  clips  inserted  and  drawn  up  tight  by  the  nuts  E.  Creeping 
is  said  to  be  practically  impossible  with  this  rim,  as  the  beads  are  firmly 
gripped  between  the  two  rings. 

158 


FIG.  94.— MICH  ELI  N. 


DEMOUNTABLE   RIMS. 

Another  step  in  advance  in  the  endeavor  to  reduce  the  trouble  and 
delay  consequent  upon  a  tire  puncture  on  the  road  was  the  introduction 
of  the  demountable  rim.  This  consists  of  a  complete  rim,  carrying  a  tire 
and  tube  fully  inflated,  which  is  always  carried  on  the  car  as  a  reserve. 
If  one  of  the  tires  on  the  car  is  damaged  so  as  to  make  it  inadvisable 
to  continue  running  on  it,  this  tire  with  its  rim  is  removed  bodily,  and  the 
reserve  tire  and  rim  are  substituted  for  it.  The  demountable  rim  was 
first  exploited  (so  far  as  our  knowledge  of  the  matter  goes)  by  a  French- 
man of  the  name  of  Vinet.  It  was  first  brought  forcibly  to  public  atten- 
tion during  the  Grand  Prix  race  in  1906,  when  a  number  of  the  com- 
peting cars  were  fitted  with  such  rims  by  the  Michelin  tire  firm,  and  it  was 
claimed  that  the  winner  owed  his  victory  to  the  fact  that  his  car  was  so 
fitted.  Since  that  time  there  has  been  great  development  in  both  sepa- 
rable and  demountable  rims,  and  the  principal  types  now  upon  the  Ameri- 
can market  are  described  in  the  following: 

MICHELIN    DEMOUNTABLE   RIM. 

The  Michelin  Tire  Company  manufactures  the  demountable  rim  con- 
struction shown  in  Fig.  94.  To  the  felloe  A  is  secured  the  band  B  with  a 
flange  on  its  inner  edge  to  receive  that  edge 
of  the  clincher  rim  C.  This  rim  is  clamped  in 
place  by  D,  there  being  eight  of  these  clamps 
spaced  around  the  felloe  and  held  in  place  by 
the  nut  F  on  bolt  E,  which  passes  through 
and  is  secured  to  the  inner  side  of  the  felloe. 
To  remove  the  rim,  the  eight  nuts  F  are  re- 
moved and  the  clamps  D  slipped  off,  which 
releases  the  rim  C,  which  is  removed  by  tak- 
ing off  the  side  opposite  the  valve  stem  and 
then  lifting  up.  To  replace,  the  valve  stem  is 
the  rest  of  the  rim,  and  the  clamps  are  slipped  on  and  tightened. 

DIAMOND   DEMOUNTABLE   RIM. 

A  steel  band  B  (Fig.  95)  is  secured  to  the  felloe  A.  This  band  has 
a  small  flange,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  which  is  the  only  part  of  the  band 
that  the  rim  C  touches,  except  the  lugs.  The  rim  C  is  formed  with  six 
lugs,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  section  at  E,  spaced  at  regular  intervals 
around  the  wheel,  and  which  fit  into  slots  cut  in  the  band  B  and  felloe  A. 
Drawing  up  on  the  nut  F  draws  the  lug  E  securely  against  A.  By  means 

of  these  six  lugs  the  rim  C 
is  held  firmly  to  the  wheel. 
There  seems  to  be  little 
chance  of  the  rim  sticking  to 
the  band  B  because  of  rust, 
as  the  only  points  where  the 
two  touch  are  the  lugs  and 
the  small  flange 

A  feature  of  this  rim  is 
the  valve  construction  em- 
ployed. By  this  construction 


FIG.  95.— DIAMOND. 
inserted  first,  followed  by 


FIG.  96. — DIAMOND  VALVE. 


159 


the  valve  stem  is  brought  flush,  like  the  lugs,  with  the  inside  of  the  rim 
C,  and  there  is  no  chance  of  the  valve  stem  being  injured  by  careless 
handling  of  the  rim,  and  it  also  allows  the  rim  to  be  more  easily  removed. 
The  principle  of  this  valve  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  regular  type,  the 
only  difference  being  in  the  length.  This  valve,  a  cross  sectional  view 
of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  96,  is  i^  inches' in  length,  which  brings  the 
valve  cap  just  below  the  surface  of  the  rim.  To  inflate  the  tire,  the  cap 
is  removed  and  an  extension  tube  is  screwed  in.  The  tube  has  a  nipple 
at  its  outer  end,  threaded  to  receive  the  standard  pump  connection. 

.  To  remove  the  rim  the  six  nuts  are  removed  and  the  rim  is  easily 
slipped  off.  The  inflated  unit  is  now  slipped  on,  the  nuts  are  screwed 
on  and  tightened,  and  the  tire  is  ready  for  use. 

THE   FISK   DEMOUNTABLE   RIM. 

The    Fisk    Rubber    Company    has    lately    brought    out    a    demountable 
rim   based   on   the   same   general    principle    as    its    separable    rim,    which 
has  been  on  the  market  for  some  years.     To  the  felloe  A   (Fig.  97)   is 
fastened  the  hollow  beveled  ring  B,  which  has  a  raised  flange  at  the  right 
for  the  support  of  the  rim  C.  The  clamping  de- 
vice is  a  beveled  expanding  ring   D,  held  in 
place  by  five  lock  nuts,  one  of  which,  F,   is 
shown,  spaced  equally  around  the  ring  B.    The 
tire  is   fastened  to  the  rim  C  by  the  regular 
Fisk  method,  the  only  change  being  the  valve 
stem  construction.     This  valve  stem  is  in  the 
form  of  an  L,  the  valve  cap  projecting  through 
the  bead  of  the  tire,  as  shown  at  G.    This  con- 
struction allows  the  rim  to  be  removed  with- 
out chance  of  injury  to  the  valve. 

To  remove  the  rim,  the  five  nuts  are  re- 
moved, which  allows  the  clamping  ring  D  to 
be  removed.     The   rim  C  is  now  slipped  off 
and  the  spare  inflated  unit  is  put  in  its  place, 
the  ring  D  slipped  over  the  bolts  E,  and  the  nuts  F  replaced. 

Drawing  up  on  the  nuts  F  expands  the  ring  D,  and  the  rim  C  is  held 
in  the  channel  formed  by  the  two  flanges. 

FIRESTONE   DEMOUNTABLE   RIM. 

In  Fig.  98  C  is  a  standard  clincher  rim,  to  which  block  B  is  attached. 
This  block,  of  which  there  are  six,  spaced  equally  around  the  rim,  fits 
into  a  channel  cut  in  the  steel  band,  which  is  attached  to  the  felloe  A. 
This  band  has  a  small  flange  at  each  edge  on  which  the  rim  sets, 
thus  giving  a  comparatively 
small  area  of  contact  for  rust- 
ing and  sticking.  By  means  of 
the  clips  D  E  the  rim  is  pre- 
vented from  slipping  off  side- 
ways, and  creeping  cannot  oc- 
cur because  of  the  block  B  in 
the  channel  in  the  band. 


THE    HORSELESS    A«E 


FIG.   97. — FISK. 


FIGS.  98  AND  99. — FIRESTONE. 


To  remove  the  rim,  nut  G  is  loosened,  freeing  the  eccentrically  mounted 
clip  D,  which  is  turned  in  the  opposite  direction   (Fig.  99),  and  the  nut 

160 


THE    HORSELESS   >G( 

FIG.    loo.— CONTINENTAL. 


G  is  lightly  drawn  up  to  hold  it  in  position.  All  six  clips  are  treated 
in  this  manner,  and  the  rim  is  easily  slipped  off,  as  the  lugs  and  valve 
stem  are  flush  with  the  inside  of  the  rim.  This  valve  is  of  the  same 
type  as  the  one  illustrated  in  Fig.  96.  The  inflated  unit  is  now  slipped 
on,  the  clips  are  reversed  and  the  nuts  tightened. 

CONTINENTAL   READY-FLATED   TIRE   RIM. 

To  the  felloe  A  (Fig.  100)  is  secured  the  band  B,  which  has  a  flange 
on  its  inner  edge  to  receive  rim  C,  which  is  made  slightly  larger  than 
the  band  B,  to  allow  of  the  insertion  of  the  wedgelike  clamp  D,  which 
holds  the  rim  C  in  place.  There  are  eight 
of  these  clamps,  spaced  at  equal  distances 
around  the  felloe.  These  clamps  are  held  in 
place  by  nuts  F,  on  bolts  E,  which  pass  through 
and  are  secured  to  the  felloe.  To  remove  this 
rim,  the  nut  F  is  taken  off,  freeing  wedge  D, 
which  is  also  removed.  All  eight  clamps  are 
removed  in  this  manner,  and  the  rim  is  re- 
moved by  pulling  off  first  the  side  opposite  the 
valve  stem,  and  then  by  lifting  the  valve  stem 

out.  To  replace  it  is  simply  the  reverse  operation,  the  clamps  being 
replaced  and  the  nuts  drawn  up  until  all  is  firm.  Replacement  is  facili- 
tated by  the  use  of  a  brace  wrench,  which  is  supplied. 

CRESCENT   DEMOUNTABLE   RIM. 

B  (Fig.  101)  is  a  beveled  steel  band  secured  to  the  felloe  A.  The 
clincher  rim  C  is  beveled  on  its  inner  side  to  fit  on  B,  and  is  clamped 
into  position  by  six  hinged  clips  spaced  at  equal  distances  around  the 
felloe.  One  of  these  clips  is  shown  at  D.  These  clips  are  drawn  up 
by  nuts  E  on  bolts  which  pass 
through  the  felloe  B.  The  rim 
is  removed  by  burying  the 
valve  stem,  preferably  at  the 
top,  and  removing  nut  E,  which 
releases  D,  allowing  it  to  be 
swung  out  and  down,  away 
from  the  rim.  All  the  clips 
are  thus  opened  and  the  rim  is 
removed  by  pulling  the  lower 
part  of  the  rim  away  first  and 

releasing  the  valve  stern  by  lifting  up  on  it.  The  inflated  unit  is  slipped 
on  by  inserting  the  valve  stem  first  and  then  the  other  half  on  the  wheel. 
The  clips  are  turned  up  and  the  nuts  tightened.  Bands  B  and  C  are 
galvanized,  clips  D  are  nickeled,  and  bronze  nuts  are  used,  which  is 
claimed  to  prevent  any  sticking  due  to  rust. 


H£    HOUSELESS    ICI 


FIG.   101. — CRESCENT. 


Demountable    Rims   in    Practice. 

(H.    H.    BROWN.) 

The    demountable    rim    proper    weighs    substantially    the    same    as    the 
ordinary  clincher  rim,  which  is  permanently  attached  to  the  wheel,  the 

161 


additional  weight  involved  being  simply  that  of  the  inner  rim  attached 
to  the  wheel  and  that  of  the  clamps  and  bolts.  This  amounts  to  about 
9  to  12  pounds  per  wheel,  according  to  size,  making  a  total  of,  let  us  say, 
45  pounds  for  the  four  wheels.  The  spare  demountable  rims  weigh  on  an 
average  15  pounds,  and  as  two  of  these  are  generally  carried,  the  total 
added  weight  is  increased  by  30  pounds,  making  a  total  of  70  pounds  for 
the  complete  additional  equipment.  The  weight  of  the  spare  shoes  and 
tubes  has  not  been  included,  as  these  are  now  carried  in  almost  every  case. 
It  hardly  seems  as  if  a  matter  of  75  pounds  is  of  much  moment  on  a 
car  weighing  from  2,000  to  3,000  pounds,  especially  as  more  than  half  of 
this  goes  toward  strengthening  the  wheel  and  puts  no  additional  weight 
on  frame  or  axles.  In  order  to  be  sure  of  having  the  spares  ready  for 
immediate  use  they  should  be  examined  about  once  a  week  to  see  that 
they  are  properly  inflated.  In  case  a  power  air  pump  and  tank  are  at 
hand,  in  which  latter  a  known  constant  pressure  is  maintained,  it  would 
only  be  necessary  to  connect  the  spares  to  this  from  time  to  time.  How- 
ever, as  there  may  be  slow  leaks,  valve  troubles,  etc.,  and  as  one  may  not 
have  a  power  pump  available  at  all  times,  it  is  best  to  have  a  tire  pres- 
sure gauge  with  which  the  pressure  in  the  spares  may  be  measured  from 
time  to  time.  This  gives  one  a  line  on  the  tightness  of  the  valve,  etc. 

Two   HANDY   TOOLS. 

Placing  of  a  tire  on  the  detached  rim  is  easier  than  placing  one  on  a 
wheel,  if  it  is  gone  about  in  the  right  way.  Two  simple  tools  are  of 
great  assistance  in  this.  The  first  is  some  form  of  plug  to  place  through 
the  valve  hole  in  the  rim  and  the  valve  notch  in  the  shoe.  A  tapered 
wooden  plug  will  serve  for  this  purpose,  or  even  a  discarded  valve  stem. 
The  other  is  known  as  a  "lug  hook."  It  consists  of  a  piece  of  three- 
eighths  inch  round  iron,  bent  at  its  centre  to  an  angle  of  about  30  degrees, 
the  ends  of  these  arms  being  turned  up  at  an  acute  angle  in  a  plane  per- 
pendicular to  that  of  the  main  angle.  The  arms  are  about  6  inches  long 
and  the  turned  up  ends  about  I  inch  long.  This  is  used  in  conjunction 
with  some  form  of  lever  about  five-eighths  inch  in  diameter  and  18  inches 
long.  This  tool  forms  part  of  two  standard  kits,  but  may  be  easily  made 
by  any  blacksmith. 

METHOD  OF   REPLACING. 

The  rim  is  first  laid  on  the  ground,  the  shoe  laid  over  it,  the  lower 
part  of  the  bead  at  the  valve  hole  being  put  in  its  place  on  the  rim  and 
the  "plug"  inserted  in  the  valve  notch  and  hole.  The  remainder  of  the 
lower  bead  may  now  be  put  into  position. 

Now  stand  the  rim  upright,  the  detached  edge  of  the  tire  away  from 
the  body,  and  the  lug  hole  next  the  valve  hole  uppermost.  Catch  the  edge 
of  the  tire  on  either  side  of  the  lug  hole  with  the  lug  hook,  pass  the 
round  lever  through  the  angle  of  the  hook,  and,  with  the  near  edge  of  the 
rim  as  a  fulcrum,  bend  back  the  tire.  By  slightly  canting  the  rim  away 
from  the  body  it  will  be  found  that  the  end  of  the  lever  can  be  caught 
in  the  crook  of  the  knee,  and  then  both  hands  can  be  used  to  place  the 
lug  in  position.  The  use  of  this  device  not  only  enables  one  to  pull  back 
the  cover  from  over  the  lug  hole,  but  actually  pulls  the  bead  of  the  tire 
into  position  in  the  clinch  of  the  rim.  It  is  best  to  work  round  pro- 
gressively in  placing  the  lugs,  as  in  case  of  the  use  of  a  "protector  strip" 

162 


this  will  then  not  be  moved  out  of  position.  When  all  the  lugs  are  in 
position  the  valve  stem  of  the  tube  may  be  put  into  position  by  means 
of  the  lug  hook,  the  "plug"  being  first  removed.  The  rim  is  now  laid 
on  the  ground  and  the  remainder  of  the  tube  placed  in  position  in  the 
shoe.  It  is  now  as  well  to  slightly  inflate  the  tube,  seeing  to  it  that  it  is 
not  twisted  and  that  the  lugs  do  not  nip  it.  The  outer  edge  of  the  tire 
may  now  be  placed  in  position  and  the  lugs  tested  by  the  stems  to  see 
lhat  they  are  all  right.  After  this  is  done  the  tire  may  be  fully  inflated, 
in  place.  If  the  lugs  are  new  ones  the  ends  of  the  stems  should  be  filed 
During  the  inflation  the  lug  stems  may  be  removed  and  the  nuts  screwed 
or  sawed  off  flush  with  the  nuts.  This  may,  however,  be  done  before  they 
are  placed  on  the  rim,  if  an  old  lug  is  available  as  a  guide. 

By  following  this  method  it  is  possible  for  one  man  to  place  a  new 
tire  complete  on  a  rim  in  between  fourteen  and  seventeen  minutes,  this 
including  inflation  by  power  pump.  In  case  of  a  simple  puncture  the  rim 
is  placed  on  the  ground,  the  nuts  are  removed  from  the  lugs,  and  the  edge 
of  the  tire  is  removed  from  the  rim.  The  stems  are  then  attached  to  the 
lugs  without  the  aid  of  the  lug  hook,  while  the  rim  is  on  the  ground. 
The  lug  hook  is  only  used  to  remove  and  replace  the  valve  stem  of  the 
old  and  new  tubes. 

It  would  appear  that  the  use  of  the  same  size  tire  all  around,  while 
desirable  even  on  the  ordinary  type  of  rim,  is  even  more  so  in  the  case 
of  demountable  rims.  For  carrying  the  rims  some  form  of  carrier  requir- 
ing less  straps  and  buckles  than  the  ordinary  form  of  tire  bracket  would 
be  a  great  convenience,  and  would  probably  greatly  shorten  the  total  time 
of  making  the  change. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  none  of  the  arguments  used  against  the  demount- 
able rim  have  proven  valid,  with  the  possible  exception  of  that  to  the 
effect  that  a  second  puncture  takes  more  time.  This  total  extra  time  would 
not  amount  to  more  than  five  minutes  over  that  required  to  replace  a  tube 
in  the  ordinary  clincher  rim,  as  the  only  additional  work  would  be  the 
unscrewing  and  replacement  of  the  clamps  and  the  changing  of  the  rims. 
The  wheel  would  have  to  be  jacked  up  and  the  inner  tubes  removed  and 
replaced  in  both  cases.  On  the  other  hand,  apart  from  the  time  saved 
by  shortening  roadside  delays,  it  is  probable  that  the  money  saved  by 
preventing  pinching  of  inner  tubes  and  ruining  of  shoes  by  being  run 
deflated  goes  far  toward  defraying  the  cost  of  the  outfit. 


163 


THE    INSPECTION,    CARE    AND    USE    OF 
MOTOR    CARS. 


The    Inspection   and   Supplying   of   a   Car. 

(ALBERT    L.    CLOUGH.) 

Constant  inspection  is  the  price  of  successful  and  safe  motor  car 
operation,  as  indeed  it  is  with  any  other  piece  of  mechanism  which  is 
complicated  and  harshly  used. 

Inspection  not  only  reduces  the  liability  of  those  derangements  which 
may  cause  imperfect  operation  and  stoppages  on  the  road,  but,  what  is 
far  more  important,  it  in  a  measure  forestalls  those  imperfections  which 
may  result  in  accident  to  the  occupants  of  the  machine  or  damage  to 
the  car  itself.  Inspection  for  the  latter  class  of  derangements  is  far  more 
imperative  than  for  the  former,  and  it  may  be  well  to  mention  a  few  of 
the  matters  which  should  be  looked  to  particularly  with  an  idea  of  pro- 
tecting the  passengers  and  the  machine  from  danger. 

THE   STEERING   GEAR, 

from  the  hand  wheel  to  the  wheels  themselves,  must  be  scrutinized  with 
the  most  minute  attention.  Every  nut  must  be  demonstrated  to  be  in 
place  and  its  cotter  pin,  if  it  have  one,  properly  secured.  The  ball  joints 
in  the  steering  linkage  should  be  in  correct  and  firm  adjustment.  If 
there  is  much  lost  motion  between  the  hand  wheel  and  the  steering  axles, 
it  should  be  located  and,  if  possible,  removed.  Sometimes  an  adjustment 
is  provided  to  take  up  wear  in  the  worm  gear,  or  whatever  irreversible 
mechanism  is  provided  in  the  steering  column.  The  column  should  also 
be  demonstrated  to  be  perfectly  fast  to  the  frame.  Tightness  in  all  parts 
of  the  mechanism,  but  still  a  perfect  freedom  of  motion  of  the  gear, 
should  be  the  desideratum.  If  the  gear  springs  badly  when  it  is  operated 
with  the  vehicle  at  rest,  it  should  be  viewed  with  suspicion,  and  if  there 
is  a  large  amount  of  incurable  backlash  the  worn  parts  had  best  be 
replaced.  The  irreversible  mechanism  at  the  foot  of  the  column  is  gen- 
erally intended  to  be  kept  packed  in  lubricant,  and  every  joint  and  pivot 
should  be  lubricated  with  grease  or  oil.  In  connection  with  the  steering 
gear  one  should  try  both  front  wheels  to  make  sure  that  they  are  fast 
on  their  axles  and  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  their  working  off. 
THE  BRAKES. 

Upon  the  integrity  of  the  brakes  depends  the  lives  and  limbs  of  the 
occupants  of  the  car,  and  no  pains  should  be  spared  to  make  sure  that 
they  are  effective.  The  pull  rods  or  cables  which  transmit  the  braking 
power  from  pedal  or  lever  should  be  securely  attached  to  the  mechanism' 
which  they  operate,  and  entirely  free  from  interference  with  other  parts. 
Adjustment  must  be  so  made  that  the  brake  is  fully  applied  before  the 
operating  pedal  or  lever  reaches  the  limit  of  its  motion.  In  the  case  of 

164 


hub  brakes  one  should  see  that  the  brake  band  on  one  wheel  acts  just 
as  strongly  as  that  on  the  other.  If  fabric  bands  are  used  they  should 
be  kept  free  from  oil,  but  if  the  braking  surfaces  are  metal,  oil  is  gen- 
erally expected  to  be  used  upon  them.  There  is  no  excuse  for  anyone 
who  operates  with  his  brakes  in  bad  order,  as  their  condition  may  be 
tested  at  any  moment  on  the  road  by  any  operator,  no  matter  how  untech- 
nical  he  may  be.  Do  not  neglect  one  brake  because  you  employ  it  but 
little,  but  see  that  it  is  in  as  good  condition  as  the  other. 
LUBRICATION. 

The  chief  causes  of  damage  to  the  mechanism  which  may  be  removed 
by  inspection  are  the  failure  of  the  lubrication  of  some  part,  the  loosen- 
ing of  some  part  from  the  fastenings  which  normally  hold  it  in  place,  and 
the  failure  of  the  water  circulation. 

Upon  the  lubrication  of  each  moving  part  of  the  mechanism  depends 
its  wearing  quality,  and  even  its  operability,  and  too  great  care  cannot 
possibly  be  taken  in  regard  to  it.  It  will  be  spoken  of  in  connection  with 
the  several  parts  of  the  mechanism. 

No  matter  how  much  care  is  taken  to  prevent  the  working  loose  of 

NUTS,   BOLTS    AND    SCREWS 

(and  the  greatest  pains  are  taken  to  obviate  it  in  the  best  modern 
machines),  the  constant  vibration  of  the  car  occasionally  causes  the  slack- 
ening of  these  important  fastenings  and  sometimes  their  complete  work- 
ing out  and  their  loss,  with  very  serious  consequences.  Nothing  but  a 
trial  with  a  wrench  or  screwdriver  of  these  bolts  and  screws,  covering 
all  parts  of  the  machine,  can  assure  one  that  everything  is  as  it  should 
be ;  and  right  here  it  may  be  well  to  make  a  few  remarks  as  to  some 
of  the  conveniences  which  make  inspection  easy  and  conduce  to  its  thor- 
oughness. The  machine  should  preferably  be  capable  of  being  readily 
stripped  so  that  its  every  part  is  easily  reached,  and  engine  and  change 
speed  gear  should  be  provided  with  liberal  hand  holes.  If  possible  a 
pit  should  be  built  in  the  floor  of  the  stable,  over  which  the  machine 
may  be  placed  and  in  which  one  may  stand  at  full  height  and  secure  a 
"worm's-eye"  view  of  the  whole  mechanism.  An  incandescent  lamp  with 
wire  guard  and  a  long,  flexible  cable  is  almost  a  necessity  of  a  thorough 
inspection,  as  are  wrenches  and  screwdrivers  of  all  shapes  and  sizes.  One 
should  constantly  be  on  the  lookout  for  nuts  that  have  dropped  off  or 
lost  their  check  nuts  or  cotter  pins. 

WATER   CIRCULATION. 

The  maintenance  of  a  plentiful  supply  of  cooling  water  circulating 
energetically  through  the  engine  jacket  is  necessary  if  injuries  to  pistons 
and  cylinder  walls  are  to  be  avoided.  It  is  a  part  of  the  work  of  inspec- 
tion to  see  that  the  water  tank  is  full,  that  no  leaks  have  developed  and 
that  the  circulating  pump  is  doing  its  full  duty  and  is  properly  lubricated. 
If  it  is  driven  by  gears  they  should  be  carefully  greased,  and  the  belt 
which  operates  the  air  fan  of  the  radiator  should  be  kept  well  dressed 
and  at  the  proper  tightness,  and  its  fastenings  should  be  secure. 

In  the  general  inspection  of  the  car  one  may  well  begin  with 

THE   RUNNING   GEAR. 

The  tires  should  be  examined  for  nails  or  other  puncture  producing 
objects  and  the  sides  for  evidences  of  rim  cutting.  If  any  parts  of  the 

165 


tread  are  cut  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  stick  down  the  chipped  portions 
with  a  rubber  cement  manufactured  for  this  purpose.  The  front  wheels 
may  be  jacked  up  and  demonstrated  to  run  perfectly  free,  but  without 
any  serious  side  play.  The  ball  or  roller  bearings  used  must  occasionally 
be  packed  in  grease,  and  should  be  adjusted  to  that  degree  of  tightness 
which  secures  freedom  from  wobble,  but  without  the  least  tendency  toward 
binding. 

If  the  car  has  a  live  rear  axle,  care  should  be  taken  that  its  bearings, 
usually  four  in  number,  and  of  balls  or  rollers,  are  fully  lubricated.  The 
large  nuts  securing  the  wheels  to  the  axle  tips  should  be  shown  to  be  per- 
fectly tight.  In  case  the  axle  is  chain  driven  one  should  see  that  the  chain 
is  neither  too  tight  nor  too  loose,  and  that  it  is  clean  and  well  lubricated. 
Occasionally  it  should  be  examined,  link  by  link,  to  make  sure  that  none 
of  the  parts  have  worn  excessively  and  are  in  danger  of  giving  'way. 
The  link  which  fastens  together  the  two  ends  of  the  chain  should  be 
closely  examined  to  see  that  it  is  secure. 

The  two  distance  rods  which  adjust  the  chain  should  be  set  up  tight, 
and  at  equal  length,  so  as  to  keep  the  axles  parallel,  and  be  lubricated  at 
their  bearings,  and  the  differential  case  should  be  supplied  with  the  proper 
amount  of  heavy  oil  to  secure  constant  lubrication.  If  the  car  has  a 
shaft  drive  the  lubrication  of  the  bevel  gears,  if  attended  to,  will  probably 
insure  the  oiling  of  the  differential.  In  case  of  the  solid  axle  and  double 
chain  drive  the  bearings  of  the  wheels  on  the  axle  must  be  attended  to, 
but  the  lubrication  of  the  differential  will  probably  be  taken  care  of  when 
the  change  speed  gear  case  is  supplied  with  oil.  The  springs  should  be 
inspected  to  see  that  no  leaves  are  broken,  and  every  nut  on  the  clips, 
which  secure  the  springs  to  the  frame  and  to  the  axles,  should  be  left 
in  a  tight  condition,  as  otherwise  a  broken  leaf  may  be  the  result.  The 
paint  will  usually  hold  these  nuts  from  loosening. 
THE  ENGINE. 

The  engine  should  be  turned  over  by  the  crank,  and  the  compression 
in  each  cylinder  should  be  proved  to  be  satisfactorily  maintained.  If  it 
is  not,  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  locate  the  escape  of  the  gas,  which, 
if  not  being  lost  by  the  piston  rings,  may  escape  past  a  spark  plug  that 
does  not  fit  tightly  or  through  an  inlet  or  exhaust  valve  which  does  not 
seat  properly.  Sometimes  one  can  determine  where  the  loss  of  gas  is  by 
the  sound  when  the  engine  is  slowly  cranked.  The  bottom  of  the  crank 
case  should  be  removed  or  the  hand  hole  cover  taken  off,  as  the  case 
may  be,  and  the  moving  parts  inspected.  No  perceptible  looseness  should 
be  allowed  in  the  bearings  of  the  connecting  rods  on  the  crank  pins  or 
at  the  wrist  pins,  and  shims  are  sometimes  provided  to  allow  of  the  neces- 
sary adjustment  of  the  former  bearings.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
that  the  bolts  holding  the  caps  on  these  bearings  should  be  tight  and  prop- 
erly locked,  and  the  caps  on  the  crank  shaft  bearings  in  the  engine  base 
should  be  left  in  a  perfectly  secure  condition.  If  any  of  the  valves  have- 
proved  to  be  leaky  they  should  be  removed,  together  with  their  seats  (if 
these  are  separable),  and  ground  in.  The  bearings  of  the  secondary  shaft 
should  be  in  proper  adjustment,  and  if  any  part  of  the  engine  appears 
to  have  lacked  oil  one  should  ascertain  the  reason.  If  splash  lubrication  is 
employed  the  case,  after  being  put  together,  should  be  filled  with  the 

166 


proper  amount  of  high  test  cylinder  oil,  and  any  undue  escape  of  the 
lubricant  through  joints  or  otherwise  should  be  corrected;  and  if  the  oil 
is  fed  to  the  cylinders  and  other  parts  through  oil  pipes  it  is  well  to 
occasionally  disconnect  these  and  see  that  oil  is  actually  delivered  when 
the  lubricator  is  working. 

SPARK   PLUGS. 

Spark  plugs  should  be  removed  and  seen  to  be  clean  and  uncracked, 
and  their  terminals  adjusted  at  the  right  distance.  The  timer  may  be 
uncovered,  the  contacts  cleaned  and  the  connections  of  the  wires  to  it 
demonstrated  to  be  tight  and  not  liable  to  breakage.  It  is  well  to  take 
a  look  at  all  the  wiring  to  see  that  it  is  not  oil  soaked  or  that  it  does 
not  pass  too  near  any  conducting  part  of  the  car. 

If  storage  batteries  are  employed  it  is  a  good  idea  to  make  a  volt- 
meter test  of  each  cell,  examine  the  contacts  for  tightness  and  signs  of 
corrosion,  and  to  see  that  no  slopping  of  electrolyte  is  taking  place.  In 
case  dry  cells  are  used  it  is  well  to 

TEST    EACH    CELL 

of  the  battery  by  means  of  a  gauge.  The  cells  should  be  packed  in  such  a 
way  that  they  cannot  shift  from  the  motion  of  the  car,  and  the  connec- 
tions between  them  should  be  of  flexible  cable,  provided  with  proper  ter- 
minals. Where  a  magneto  is  used  it  should  receive  the  lubrication  which 
the  makers  intend,  and  its  contacts  and  binding  screws  should  be  in  good 
electrical  condition.  If  driven  by  gears  they  should  be  kept  well  lubricated. 

Coil  vibrators  must  be  adjusted  propefly,  and  the  adjustments  set  very 
securely.  The  platinum  points  should  be  carefully  brightened  with  emery 
cloth.  If  the  contact  spark  is  used  the  igniters  should  occasionally  be 
removed  from  the  cylinders  to  see  that  the  points  are  in  proper  condi- 
tion to  give  a  good  contact,  and  the  mechanism  should  work  perfectly 
freely,  and  not  at  all  sluggishly,  in  order  that  the  break  may  be  quick 
and  "snappy." 

CHANGE    SPEED    GEAR. 

The  change  speed  gear,  if  of  the  sliding  pinion  system,  should  have  its 
case  provided  with  a  sufficient  but  not  excessive  quantity  of  heavy  oil  or 
grease  and  oil  mixture,  and  the  old  oil  should  be  drawn  off  and  the  parts 
thoroughly  washed  with  kerosene  before  new  lubricant  is  put  in.  The 
shifting  mechanism  should  be  thoroughly  oiled  at  its  joints,  and  seen  to 
be  in  such  adjustment  that  the  gears  fully  mesh  when  the  lever  is  locked 
in  its  several  positions.  In  case  a  planetary  gear  is  used  the  straps  must 
be  adjusted  so  as  to  secure  freedom  from  .slipping  on  each  speed  and  so 
as  not  to  drag  when  released,  and  the  case  should  contain  plenty  of  lubri- 
cant. The  pivots  of  the  operating  mechanism  which  tightens  the  straps 
should  be  lubricated,  as  well  as  the  operating  parts  of  the  high  speed 
locking  clutch.  These  gears  frequently  have  a  number  of  oil  holes,  vary- 
ing with  different  makes,  and  none  of  them  should  be  neglected.  It  may 
he  remarked  in  passing  that  the  operation  of  lubrication,  if  intelligently 
performed,  will  often  bring  to  light,  without  special  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  attendant,  many  cases  of  looseness  of  parts,  excessive  wear  and  other 
defects.  One  cannot  completely  inspect  the  lubrication  system  without 
viewing  and  perhaps  handling  most  parts  of  the  machine,  and  in  so  doing 

167 


one  is  likely  to  notice  anything  which  is  out  of  order.  One  should  not 
take  for  granted  that  a  force  feed  lubricator,  operated  either  by  the  ex- 
haust pressure  or  mechanically  driven  by  the  engine,  is  infallible  in  its 
workings.  Oil  pipes  will  sometimes  clog,  and  the  small  pumps  used  in  the 
latter  type  sometimes  fail  to  draw  their  charge  of  oil.  One  must  be  sure 
that  oil  actually  reaches  the  part  intended,  and  to  this  end  oil  magazines 
and  their  pipes  should  occasionally  be  flushed  out  with  gasoline.  Oil  ways 
and  holes  must  be  free  so  as  to  carry  the  lubricant  to  the  very  point  at 
which  it  is  needed.  One  should  have  a  variety  of  oil  cans  of  proper 
sizes  and  lengths  of  spout,  so  that  there  may  be  no  temptation  to  slight 
any  parts  of  the  mechanism. 

If  a  cone  clutch  is  employed  there  seldom  will  be  any  need  of  adjust- 
ment, but  the  operating  mechanism  which  throws  the  clutch  out  must 
be  oiled.  Castor  oil  is  sometimes  used  on  the  leather  lining  to  keep  it 
soft  and  to  make  it  "take  hold"  properly,  and  neatsfoot  oil  is  also 
recommended. 

All  operating  levers  and  their  connections,  including  the  gear  shifting 
handles,  the  spark  advance  and  the  throttle  or  accelerator  pedal  or  lever, 
should  be  proved  to  be  perfect  in  their  workings. 

Gasoline  piping  should  be  inspected  for  leaks,  and  the  tank  as  well. 
The  carburetor  float  chamber  should  occasionally  be  drawn  off  and  flushed 
with  gasoline,  in  order  to  remove  any  water  or  sediment,  and  the  spraying 
nozzle  and  chamber  should  be  kept  free  of  all  foreign  substances. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  any  directions  for  inspection  which  will  cover 
all  makes  of  machine,  but  a  short  acquaintance  with  any  particular  car 
is  sure  to  bring  out  special  points  which  need  examination  frequently.  If, 
however,  all  parts  are  carefully  examined  in  the  stable  at  frequent  inter- 
vals, there  will  be  very  few  troubles  met  with  on  the  road,  and  it  should 
be  the  aim  of  every  conscientious  automobilist  to  secure,  by  his  own  fore- 
sight, a  clean  road  record.  Tire  troubles  and  rare  instances  of  the  break- 
age of  parts,  neither  of  which  classes  of  troubles  can  be  avoided  by  inspec- 
tion, are  about  all  the  difficulties  which  a  good  operator  ought  to  expect 
while  the  machine  is  in  service.  An  ounce  of  prevention  applied  in  the 
stable  is  better  than  many  pounds  of  cure  applied  under  the  disadvan- 
tageous circumstances  which  the  road  generally  imposes. 

Tire  repairs  being  treated  in  a  separate  chapter,  nothing  will  here  be 
said  regarding  them. 

SPARE    PARTS. 

After  all  the  precautions  in  the  way  of  inspection  have  been  taken,  it  is 
well  to  be  prepared  to  meet  all  ordinary  emergencies  of  the  road,  and  in 
order  to  do  so  the  tool  box  should  be  liberally  and  judiciously  supplied 
with  the  proper  tools  and  supplies.  Although  modern  cars  are  almost 
proof  against  serious  breakages,  if  a  long  tour  is  contemplated  through" 
a  district  where  repair  shops  are  few,  quite  an  extensive  list  of  spare  parts 
and  supplies  had  best  be  taken.  As  to  what  spare  parts  should  be  chosen 
nothing  but  experience  can  determine.  But  it  may  be  said  that  whatever 
part  or  parts  of  a  particular  machine  have  shown  weakness  should  be  the 
parts  carried  in  duplicate.  An  extra  inlet  valve  and  an  extra  exhaust 
valve,  with  their  springs,  should  be  included  in  the  kit,  together  with  a 
good  supply  of  spark  plugs,  if  the  jump  spark  is  used,  and  a  complete 

168 


extra  igniter  if  the  low  tension  system  is  employed.  A  spare  make  and 
break  mechanism  for  tlie  magneto  may  not  be  amiss. 

Some  people  carry  an  extra  set  of  springs,  or  an  extra  front  spring  at 
least,  but  these  are  not  likely  to  be  needed  unless  the  machine  is  over- 
driven, and  they  are  rather  cumbersome  and  heavy.  A  good  country 
blacksmith  is  ordinarily  able  to  make  new  springs,  at  least  for  temporary 
use  in  case  of  breakage  on  the  road. 

Extra  links  for  the  driving  chain  and  ah  extra  master  link  should,  of 
course,  be  included,  and  an  extra  belt  for  the  air  fan,  if  one  is  used, 
may  well  be  kept  on  hand.  One  should  have  on  hand  a  stock  of  spare 
nuts  and  bolts  of  the  sizes  used  in  the  machine.  Ordinarily  the  supply 
necessary  to  fit  all  parts  of  the  machine  will  not  prove  burdensome. 

The  small  springs,  such  as  used  on  contact  igniters  and  governors  and 
flexible  pump  connections,  sometimes  break,  and  duplicates  should  be  at 
hand.  Gaskets  and  packings,  although  not  much  employed  in  modern 
machines,  should,  in  cases  where  they  are  used,  be  carried  ready  cut  for 
use.  Spare  tires  are  a  necessary  part  of  the  touring  equipment  of  all 
automobiles,  and  both  extra  shoes  and  inner  tubes  should  be  carried, 
together  with  patches,  cement,  graphite,  sandpaper,  extra  lugs  and  valves, 
a  pump  and  one  of  the  folding  jacks  which  are  now  on  the  market. 

In  addition  to  whatever  special  wrenches  or  spanners  are  required  to 
fit  special  parts  of  the  mechanism,  and  the  tool  equipment  outlined  in  a 
later  chapter  of  this  work,  a  pocket  battery  gauge  will  not  come  amiss. 
One  can  add  to  the  equipment  a  pair  of  overalls  and  a  jumper  and  a  piece 
of  oil  cloth  to  kneel  or  lie  upon  when  making  repairs,  but  these  "insignia 
of  the  trade"  are  not  nearly  so  often  needed  as  they  were  formerly. 

SUPPLIES. 

Among  the  supplies  which  should  be  carried,  a  good  quantity  of  the 
best  high  test  gas  engine  cylinder  oil  is  the  most  important.  Oil  of  this 
quality  cannot  always  be  obtained  in  the  rural  districts,  and  without  it 
operation  is  impossible.  It  can  be  used  for  the  lubrication  of  every  part 
of  the  mackine,  and  there  are  few  places  where  it  is  not  equal,  if  not 
superior,  to  anything  else.  Ordinary  steam  engine  cylinder  oil  will  not  do 
for  gasoline  engine  cylinders,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  it  is  not 
"palmed  off"  as  suitable  for  gas  engine  use.  It  will,  however,  suffice  for 
gear  box  lubrication  and  may  be  used  if  desired.  Grease  of  the  proper 
quality  for  use  in  cups  and  in  packing  hearings  and  graphite  for  chain 
lubrication  should  be  included  in  the  outfit.  A  plentiful  supply  of  cotton 
waste  and  a  cake  of  tar  soap  should  not  be  forgotten.  A  supply  of 
annealed  iron  wire  of  medium  size,  compactly  coiled,  and  a  little  rubber 
covered  electric  cable  of  about  No.  16  may  prove  of  value,  the  former  in 
making  temporary  mechanical  repairs  and  the  latter  in  renewing  a  defective 
portion  of  the  sparking  circuits.  A  little  emery  or  quartz  powder  of 
rather  fine  grade  should  be  provided,  in  case  valves  require  grinding. 
Every  machine  should  be  supplied  with  a  funnel  fitted  with  a  chamois 
leather  strainer,  for  use  when  the  gasoline  tank  is  to  be  filled.  The 
three  supplies  most  necessary  to  the  running  of  an  automobile  (excluding 
the  cooling  water)  are  gasoline,  lubricating  oil  and  plenty  of  ignition 
energy.  As  long  as  these  are  at  hand  and  no  part  of  the  machine  is 

169 


actually  broken,  anyone  worthy  of  the  name  of  an  automobilist  ought  to 
be  able  to  keep  the  road. 

It  is  rather  a  commentary  on  human  responsibility  that  there  are  so 
many  stops  made  from  lack  of  gasoline  and  so  many  "foolish  virgins." 

Fresh  batteries  are  not  obtainable  at  every  cross  roads,  and  one  set  at 
least  ought  to  be  brand  new  when  one  is  starting  on  a  long  tour  in  "truly 
rural"  districts,  and  if  storage  batteries  are  used  they  should  be  freshly 
charged,  as  charging  facilities  are  very  limited  in  the  country  districts. 
In  genuine  touring,  when  long  distances  are  made  each  day,  inspection 
and  lubrication,  as  previously  outlined,  should  be  carried  out  punctiliously 
at  the  beginning  of  each  stage. 


Common    Engine    Derangements   and   Their   Diagnosis. 

(ALBERT   L.    CLOUGH.) 

The  most  common  trouble  likely  to  be  experienced  on  the  road  is  a 
failure  of  the  engine  to  develop  its  power.  This  may  be  total  or  partial, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  locate  the  trouble  and  remove  it. 

When  an  engine  stops  or  becomes  weak  the  chances  are  at  least  ten  to 
one  that  the  cause  is  defective  ignition  rather  than  anything  else  (see 
chapter  on  "Ignition").  With  a  single  cylinder  or  a  double  cylinder  motor 
explosions  which  are  actually  missed  can  be  readily  detected  at  low  speeds 
by  the  sound  and  by  the  unsteadiness  of  the  motion,  but  when  at  high 
rates  of  revolution  it  is  less  easy  to  be  sure  that  missing  is  going  on,  while 
with  a  four  or  six  cylinder  engine  it  is  very  difficult  to  detect  the  occa- 
sional missing  of  one  cylinder,  especially  when  the  speed  is  at  all  high, 
unless  the  muffler  cut-out  be  opened. 

An  engine  may  ignite  perfectly  when  tested  running  light,  with  nearly 
closed  throttle,  at  a  very  moderate  speed,  but  will  miss  very  badly  when 
the  throttle  is  opened  widely,  the  spark  advanced  and  the  speed  high. 
There  are  several  reasons  for  this.  When  the  throttle  is  nearly  closed 
a  very  small  charge  of  gas  is  taken,  the  compression  is  quite  low,  and 
even  a  weak  electric  tension  will  cause  a  spark  at  the  plug  through  the 
not  very  dense  charge ;  but  when  the  throttle  is  opened  wide  and  the 
spark  advanced  so  as  to  take  place  at  the  maximum  point  of  the  now 
greatly  increased  compression,  a  strong  electrical  tension  is  required  to 
force  the  spark  through  the  dense  gas.  If  battery  ignition  is  used,  when 
the  engine  is  running  slowly  the  contact  device  makes  a  longer  electrical 
connection  than  when  it  is  speeded  up,  and  a  weak  battery  is  then  more 
likely  to  build  the  current  up  to  the  sparking  point  than  when  the  connec- 
tion is  so  brief  as  it  is  at  very  high  speed.  Sometimes,  too,  when  the  con- 
tact surfaces  of  the  timer  are  worn,  the  contact  brush,  when  revolving  at 
very  high  speed,  may  pass  over  the  contact  surface  without  touching  it 
sufficiently  to  establish  a  connection.  When  a  magneto  is  used  the  chances 
of  the  failure  of  the  make  and  break  device  are  greater  at  high  speed,  and 
the  possibility  of  a  short  circuit  at  the"  distributor  or  at  the  plugs  making 
itself  felt  are  greater  at  the  high  voltage  which  is  then  generated.  One 
should  not  reason  that  because  an  engine  ignites  properly  at  low  speeds, 
on  light  throttle  opening,  it  will  fire  its  charge  regularly  under  heavy 

170 


duty.  The  chances  are  very  large  that  the  engine  which  suddenly  fails 
to  develop  its  wonted  power  under  these  conditions  is  either  missing 
charges  or  igniting  them  feebly.  The  carburetor  is  very  likely  to  be 
blamed  for  giving  a  bad  mixture  in  such  cases,  but  it  is  generally  inno- 
cent. When  the  engine  is  shut  down  after  giving  weak  power  attention 
should  be  paid  to  whether  it  stops  promptly  after  the  throwing  off  of 
the  current.  If  it  does  not,  the  chances  are  that  it  is  hot  and  has  been 
igniting  prematurely.  Such  a  condition  is  generally  preluded  by  "knock- 
ing" or  some  signs  of  labor.  Overheating  may  be  caused  by  a  failure  of 
the  cooling  water  to  circulate  properly  or  by  lack  of  cylinder  lubrication, 
and  if  the  engine  is  found  unduly  heated  the  circulating  pump  should  be 
inspected  to  see  that  it  is  operating  properly  and  the  water  tank  examined 
to  see  that  it  is  full.  If  the  radiators  are  comparatively  cool  while  the 
engine  is  excessively  hot,  it  is  pretty  certain  that  the  circulation  is  defective, 
and  the  cause  of  its  stoppage  must  be  sought.  Some  of  the  best  machines 
are  equipped  with  a  gauge  which  shows  at  a  glance  whether  the  pump  is 
developing  pressure,  but  this  does  not  necessarily  prove  that  the  circu- 
lating system  is  not  clogged  at  some  point. 

In  case  the  cooling  water  is  doing  its  work  properly,  and  yet  the  engine 
overheats,  investigation  of  its  cylinder  lubrication  must  be  undertaken,  and 
one  must  be  satisfied  that  sufficient  oil  is  actually  delivered  to  all  the 
bearing  surfaces.  Lubrication  may  have  failed  so  completely  that  the 
pistons  stick  when  the  engine  is  stopped,  and  it  cranks  with  difficulty.  In 
this  case,  cylinder  oil  should  be  injected  freely  through  oil  holes,  priming 
cocks  or  spark  plug  holes  until  the  engine  is  "limbered  up"  sufficiently 
to  operate  upon  its  regular  oil  supply  which  has  been  restored. 

Another  common  cause  of  loss  of  power,  which,  however,  does  not 
come  on  suddenly,  is  the  carbonization  of  the  piston  heads,  the  combustion 
spaces  and  the  valves.  This  condition  is  usually  manifested  by  metallic 
clanking  sounds,  which  are  especially  noticeable  when  the  throttle  is 
widely  opened  and  the  motor  is  slowed  down  under  load.  These  clanking 
sounds  are  the  result  of  the  premature  ignition  of  the  charges  by  incan- 
descent carbon  particles  within  the  combustion  space,  and  the  loss  of 
power  is  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  explosion  takes  place  while  the 
piston  is  still  ascending  in  the  cylinder,  the  result  being  that  part  of  the 
energy  of  the  fuel  is  expended  in  "back  work."  Self  ignition,  arising  from 
carbonization,  will  sometimes  cause  an  engine  to  run  after  the  switch 
has  been  thrown  off,  and  if  such  a  tendency  to  run  with  the  spark  off  is 
manifested  when  the  cylinder  jackets  are  not  unduly  hot,  while  the  radia- 
tor is  properly  warm,  there  is  a  strong  probability  that  the  engine  is  car- 
bonized. Instructions  for  dealing  with  this  condition  will  be  given  in 
a  later  chapter. 

If  the  engine  is  found  to  stop  promptly  upon  the  withdrawal  of  the 
sparking  current  it  is  not  a  case  of  overheating.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
crank  the  engine  over  and  note  carefully  whether  the  compression  in  each 
cylinder  is  of  the  usual  strength,  and  whether  the  inlet  and  exhaust  valves 
of  the  respective  cylinders  open  properly  at  the  correct  times.  If  com- 
pression is  lacking  in  any  cylinder  it  may  be  that  its  exhaust  or  inlet 
valve  is  stuck  open,  a  valve  or  its  spring  may  have  broken,  or  some  foreign 
object  may  have  lodged  on  the  seat  of  the  valve.  Everything  appearing 

171 


right  in  this  quarter,  and  the  engine  still  unable  to  develop  its  full  power, 
the  ignition  is  almost  certainly  at  fault.  In  case  two  entirely  separate 
systems  of  ignition  are  fitted  to  the  ear,  the  obvious  course  is  to  change 
over  from  the  one  which  has  been  in  use  to  the  reserve  system,  and 
if  this  latter  is  known  to  be  in  condition,  and  there  is  still  a  lack  of  power, 
it  is  not  likely  that  the  difficulty  is  one  of  ignition.  The  only  exception 
to  this  is  that  the  plugs  of  both  systems  have  become  fouled  with  gaso- 
line or  oil  soot.  If  no  spark  gap  is  provided  it  is  sometimes  possible  to 
discriminate  the  defective  cylinder  by  successively  cutting  out  the  spark 
plugs.  This  may  readily  be  done  by  means  of  a  screwdriver  having  a  wood 
handle,  the  blade  of  which  is  made  to  simultaneously  touch  the  engine 
and  the  head  of  the  spark  plug,  which  it  is  desired  to  short  circuit.  The 
engine  should  be  speeded  up  somewhat  by  means  of  the  throttle,  and 
the  successive  short  circuiting  of  the  plugs  performed.  When  the  igni- 
tion of  a  cylinder,  which  is  working  properly,  is  thus  cut  off,  the  engine 
will  slow  down  considerably,  and  will  probably  work  somewhat  irregularly, 
as  the  defective  cylinder  or  cylinders  are  still  in  action;  but  when  a  cylinder, 
which  is  missing  badly,  is  thus  cut  out  the  speed  will  be  very  slightly 
reduced,  and  the  action  of  the  engine  will  become  more  regular.  After  a 
little  practice  it  is  easy  to  determine  which  cylinders  are  doing  full  work 
and  which  are  not. 

If  the  missing  is  confined  to  a  single  cylinder  the  trouble  is  generally 
easy  to  locate  and  does  not  usually  denote  a  general  failure  of  the  ignition 
system  or  lack  of  current.  The  spark  plug  of  the  defective  cylinder  should 
be  removed,  carefully  cleaned  with  waste  dipped  in  gasoline,  and  tried 
again,  unless  it  is  obviously  broken,  in  which  case  it  should  be  replaced  by 
a  plug  known  to  be  perfect.  The  length  of  the  spark  gap  should  be 
examined,  and  adjusted  if  found  incorrect. 

If  the  ignition  trouble  is  being  experienced  in  connection  with  a  mag- 
neto, it  should  be  carefully  inspected  in  accordance  with  the  directions 
given  in  the  chapter  on  "Ignition."  In  case  a  special  battery  system  is 
being  used  the  instruction  book  which  usually  accompanies  this  apparatus 
should  be  consulted.  If  ignition  equipment  be  of  the  vibrating  coil  type 
the  coil  belonging  to  the  defective  cylinder  should  be  examined  and  the 
car  placed  close  to  the  vibrator  to  see  that  it  buzzes  at  perfectly  regular 
intervals  and  with  a  sound  of  uniform  pitch.  If  it  does  not,  or  if  there 
is  an  excessive  or  irregular  spark  between  the  vibrator  points,  the  trouble 
may  be  there.  The  points  should  then  be  carefully  cleaned  with  emery 
cloth  and  the  adjustments  manipulated  until  the  best  possible  action  of 
the  buzzer  is  obtained,  and  the  adjusting  screws  made  tight.  In  case  the 
buzzer  still  fails  to  respond  properly,  it  may  be  that  the  primary  wire 
between  the  coil  and  the  contact  device  is  broken  or  short  circuited,  or 
that  the  timer  makes  a  poor  contact  for  that  particular  coil,  although  this 
is  unlikely,  as  some  other  cylinders  would  then  probably  be  affected. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  buzzer  of  the  defective  cylinder  is  working 
regularly  and  energetically,  the  trouble  is  likely  to  be  in  the  secondary, 
and  the  secondary  wiring  should  be  examined  to  see  that  it  is  not  broken 
and  that  the  discharge  is  not  taking  place  through  some  poorly  insulated 
portion  of  the  circuit  to  some  metallic  portion  of  the  machine,  thus  cutting 
out  the  spark  plug.  The  inspection  of  the  secondary  circuit  is  equally 

172 


necessary  whatever  system  of  jump  spark  ignition  is  employed.  There 
is,  too,  a  remote  possibility  that  the  secondary  of  the  coil  may  have 
broken  down,  but  this  hardly  need  be  considered.  It  is  pretty  certain 
that  the  trouble  in  the  defective  cylinder  will  be  located  at  one  or  the 
other  of  the  points  mentioned. 

If,  instead  of  a  single  defective  cylinder,  there  is  a  general  failure  of 
battery  and  coil  ignition,  resulting  in  the  stoppage  of  the  car  or  very 
erratic  operation  of  the  engine,  the  natural  thing  to  do  is  to  change  to 
the  other  battery.  Both  batteries  of  a  well  kept  machine  are  always 
assumed  to  be  in  perfect  condition  at  the  start  of  a  long  run,  and  so  when 
the  second  set  is  thrown  in  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  it  is  of  full 
power.  If  only  the  battery  was  at  fault  perfect  ignition  will  be  restored, 
but  one  should  remember  to  inspect  the  defective  battery,  test  it  with  the 
battery  gauge,  tighten  all  battery  contacts,  and  replace  any  wires  which 
may  be  found  broken  as  soon  as  opportunity  is  afforded.  In  case  the 
change  of  battery  does  not  remedy  the  difficulty  it  is  highly  probable  that 
one  of  the  "common"  wires  may  have  been  broken,  i.  e.,  one  of  the  wires 
upon  which  all  cylinders  depend.  These  are  the  wires  from  the  switch, 
and  the  wire  or  wires  which  connect  to  the  engine  frame  and  ground  the 
system.  These  should  be  inspected  to  see  that  they  are  perfect,  and  if 
broken  should  be  replaced. 

A  general  failure  of  magneto  ignition  is  likely  to  be  due  to  a  broken 
common  wire,  a  failure  of  the  make  and  break  device,  or  a  failure  of  the 
magneto  drive  (see  chapter  on  "Magnetos"). 

In  the  rare  instances  in  which  the  stoppage  of  the  engine  is  not  found 
to  be  due  to  faulty  ignition,  and  not  until  all  parts  of  the  ignition  mech- 
anism have  been  clearly  demonstrated  to  be  in  good  order,  the  carburetor 
should  be  inspected.  The  spraying  nozzle  should  be  demonstrated  to  be 
clear  by  depressing  the  float  so  as  to  force  gasoline  through  it.  If  it  is 
not  clear,  a  very  fine  wire  may  be  used  to  make  it  so.  The  float  should 
be  shown  to  be  free  in  its  motions  and  free  from  leak,  and  it  should  be 
proved  that  it  operates  its  needle  valve  properly.  All  adjustments  should 
be  examined  to  make  sure  that  they  have  not  worked  loose  and  altered. 
The  air  intake  may  have  been  clogged  by  something  sucked  into  it  from 
the  road,  and  it  should  be  examined  with  this  possibility  in  view.  It  seems 
superfluous  to  add  that  the  tank  should  be  examined  to  see  if  there  is  gaso- 
line, and  that  the  gasoline  valve  should  be  open,  but  many  long  stoppages 
have  been  occasioned  on  these  two  accounts. 


The  Care  of  Clutches. 

(JULIAN    C.    CHASE.) 

It  is  impossible  to  emphasize  too  strongly  the  fact  that  the  breakage 
of  parts,  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  car  as  a  whole,  and  its  consequent 
general  depreciation,  are  due  in  a  much  larger  measure  to  the  sudden 
shocks  to  which  the  vital  parts  are  subjected  than  to  the  natural  wear 
resulting  from  the  constant  transmission  of  driving  power  from  the 
engine  to  the  tires.  The  shocks  of  sudden  braking  severely  tax  the  running 
gear  construction,  but  the  shocks  of  improper  clutching  affect  also  the 

173 


power  mechanism  and  are,  therefore,  of  even  more  serious  consequence. 
Defects  or  disarrangements  in  clutches  reveal  themselves  in  two  dif- 
ferent ways — either  by  gripping  or  seizing  of  the  clutch,  or  by  what  may 
be  called  "spinning."  Clutch  defects  may  be  classed  accordingly,  as  the 
two  phenomena  are  due  to  entirely  different  causes  and  affect  the  trans- 
mission gear  differently. 

When  the  clutch  "grips,"  it  is  impossible  to  engage  it  gradually,  the 
power  is  therefore  applied  suddenly,  and  a  blow  delivered  to  all  parts 
along  the  line  of  transmission.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  poorly  designed 
controlling  mechanism  is  responsible  for  this  condition  of  affairs.  It 
should  be  possible  to  permit  the  clutch  to  engage  very  gradually,  so  that 
it  slips  at  first,  and  grips  tighter  as  the  car  accelerates.  To  do  this,  it  is 
necessary  that  there  be  a  liberal  amount  of  movement  of  the  foot  pedal 
or  operating  lever,  so  that  a  considerable  amount  of  time,  comparatively 
speaking,  is  occupied  in  making  the  engagement,  and  at  the  same  time  a 
sufficient  leverage  secured  to  make  the  physical  effort  required  small  and 
therefore  more  steadily  applied.  There  should  be  no  looseness  in  the 
joints,  nor  any  "give"  or  springing,  either  in  the  levers  or  at  the  fulcrums, 
for  as  the  amount  of  movement  between  the  engaging  surfaces  is  neces- 
sarily small,  it  is  essential  that  the  means  of  obtaining  it  be  absolutely 
positive. 

With  a  perfectly  operating  mechanism  it  is  possible  to  engage  a  clutch 
easily  and  without  gripping,  no  matter  what  the  tension  on  the  spring 
may  be,  within,  of  course,  certain  reasonable  limits.  However,  not  all 
controlling  devices  are  perfect,  and  it  may,  therefore,  happen  that  ex- 
cessive spring  tension  causes  a  clutch  to  grip,  while  a  tension  just  suffi- 
cient to  meet  the  normal  demands  of  driving  could  be  easily  controlled 
and  would  permit  gradual  engagement  of  the  frictional  surfaces. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  said  that  the  proper  tension  on  the  clutch 
spring  should  be  made  the  subject  of  careful  study.  Too  great  a  tension 
may  not  only  lead  to  the  trouble  indicated  above,  but  will  also  cause 
excessive  wear  on  the  thrust  bearings  and  on  all  parts  of  the  controlling 
mechanism.  The  clutch  should  set  as  a  safety  device,  to  an  extent.  It 
should,  of  course,  be  capable  of  transmitting  sufficient  torque  to  drive  the 
car  up  the  steepest  hill  which  the  power  of  the  engine  will  enable  it  to 
climb,  yet  it  should  slip  when  a  heavier  shock  is  delivered  to  it,  and  thereby 
prevent  this  shock  from  reaching  the  breakable  parts  of  the  transmission. 
Generally  speaking,  a  sufficient  spring  tension  is  that  which  will  just 
permit  the  clutch  to  slip  very  slightly  when  the  car  is  climbing  a  grade 
which  taxes  the  engine  to  its  limit  when  the  highest  speed  is  in  use. 

Gripping  may  also  be  caused  by  an  improper  condition  of  the  engaging 
surfaces.  If  both  engaged  and  engaging  surfaces  are  of  metal,  the  lack 
of  sufficient  oil  between  them  may  prevent  the  slipping  necessary  to  effect 
an  easy  start.  It  would  also  tend  to  aggravate  the  gripping  by  roughing 
up  the  surfaces.  If  leather  and  metal  are  employed^  the  cause  of  the 
trouble  usually  is  that  the  leather  has  become  dry  and  rough  through' 
lack  of  care.  Water  and  gasoline  should  not  be  allowed  to  reach  it,  as 
they  help  to  dry  out  the  oil  held  in  its  pores.  Gasoline  will  accomplish 
this  very  quickly,  while  water  may  have  just  as  bad  an  effect  in  the  end, 
although  it  does  not  act  so  rapidly.  The  heat  generated  as  one  surface 

174 


slips  over  the  other  also  tends  to  dry  out  the  oil,  and  if  a  car  has  been 
operated  for  some  time  with  a  slipping  clutch,  a  careful  inspection  of 
the  surface  of  the  leather  should  be  made  to  ascertain  whether  the  heating 
has  dried  it  up  to  any  extent.  If  this  is  not  done  the  clutch  may  grip 
when  the  spring  is  tightened. 

There  are  a  number  of  different  recipes  for  clutch  leather  dressing 
which  are  recommended  by  motorists  of  experience,  but  castor  oil  is  most 
generally  used,  sometimes  mixed  with  equal  parts  of  glycerine.  In  either 
case  it  should  be  applied  in  limited  quantities.  Neatsfoot  oil  is  also 
extensively  used.  Machine  oil  should  never  be  used,  as  it  is  not  so  readily 
taken  up  by  the  leather,  and  will  allow  slipping  under  a  higher  spring 
pressure  than  is  necessary  if  the  surfaces  are  in  perfect  condition. 

In  applying  the  dressing,  it  is  better  to  use  a  small  brush  or  swab, 
as  if  it  is  poured  on  it  is  not  likely  that  it  will  distribute  evenly,  and  as 
a  result  some  portions  of  the  leather  will  receive  too  much  and  others 
not  enough.  The  driving  effort  should  be  distributed  evenly  around  the 
periphery  of  the  clutch,  which  can  only  be  the  case  if  the  engaging  sur- 
faces are  uniform  at  all  points. 

Spinning,  as  we  have  called  it,  is  the  continued  revolution  of  the 
driven  member  after  it  has  been  disengaged.  It  results  in  a  series  of 
sharp,  hammerlike  blows  to  the  gears  (if  of  the  sliding  type)  as  they 
are  brought  into  engagement,  which  tends  to  chip  and  burr  the  teeth,  and, 
what  is  a  less  serious  matter,  to  create  considerable  noise. 

Spinning  may  be  caused  by  faulty  design,  defects  in  construction,  or 
by  improper  adjustment.  In  some  cone  clutches  the  rim  of  the  driven 
member  is  very  heavy  and  of  considerable  inertia,  and  when  disengaged 
continues  to  revolve  much  longer  than  is  desirable.  In  this  case  the  part 
of  the  operating  mechanism  which  bears  directly  against  it  should  be  so 
designed  that  it  acts  as  a  brake  and  retards  the  revolving  part  when  the 
latter  is  disconnected. 

Another  cause  of  "spinning"  is  failure  to  cut  the  driving  power  off 
entirely,  either  through  lack  of  sufficient  movement  between  the  surfaces 
to  permit  them  to  clear  each  other,  lack  of  proper  lubrication,  too  tight 
a  bearing  or  bending  of  the  clutch  shaft,  which  causes  binding  between 
the  two  members.  It  is  well  to  note  carefully  the  action  of  the  driven 
member  when  suddenly  withdrawn  from  the  driving  member  while  the 
engine  is  running  at  a  fair  rate  of  speed  and  no  gears  are  in  mesh-  If 
it  is  in  perfect  condition  it  will  stop  almost  instantly.  If  it  does  not  stop, 
a  careful  investigation  should  be  made  to  learn  the  reason.  Upon  the 
free  action  of  the  clutch,  more  than  upon  any  other  thing,  depends  the 
successful  operation  of  a  good  slide  gear  transmission. 

Slipping  of  the  clutch  may  result  from  either  of  two  common  causes. 
The  first  is  insufficient  spring  tension,  and  the  second  greasy  surfaces. 
The  remedy  for  the  first  is  obvious.  The  second  is  only  possible  with 
leather  clutches,  and  the  remedy  lies  in  getting  rid  of  the  superfluous 
oil.  To  do  this  it  is  best  to  use  French  chalk  or  talc.  It  can  be  blown 
into  the  space  between  the  two  clutch  members  by  means  of  a  glass  tube, 
and  will  absorb  the  oil  rapidly.  Gasoline  or  resin  should  never  be  used, 
as  the  former  dries  up  the  leather,  and  the  latter  embeds  itself  into  the 
surface  and  may  ruin  it. 

175 


Before  concluding  that  a  clutch  spring  needs  tightening  or  that  some 
of  the  oil  should  be  removed  from  the  leather  it  is  well  to  ascertain 
whether  the  slipping  is  not  due  to  the  fact  that  some  part  of  the  trans- 
mission is  binding,  as  this  might  be  the  real  cause  of  the  trouble  and  the 
slipping  of  the  clutch  merely  one  of  the  results. 

The  action  of  a  multiple  disc  clutch  depends  very  largely  upon  the 
quality  of  lubricant  used  in  its  enclosing  case.  If  the  oil  is  of  too  thin 
body,  engagement  is  likely  to  take  place  too  fiercely  and  the  plates  may 
become  cut  or  otherwise  damaged.  If  the  oil  is  too  heavy  and  viscous, 
engagement  may  be  slow  and  uncertain,  and  there  is  likely  to  be  serious 
spinning  set  up  which  makes  gear  changing  difficult  and  noisy.  When 
there  is  sufficient  reason  to  believe  that  the  oil  is  too  thick  (as  may 
especially  happen  in  cold  weather),  a  slight  admixture  of  kerosene  some- 
times remedies  the  difficulty.  If  the  clutch  is  too  sudden  in  its  action 
the  use  of  a  heavier  grade  of  oil  may  allow  of  more  gradual  engagement. 
Most  car  manufacturers  give  explicit  directions  for  the  lubrication  and 
care  of  their  multiple  disc  clutches,  and  these  instructions  should  be 
carefully  followed. 


The  Care  of   Chains  and   Sprockets. 

In  a  high  grade  automobile  driving  chain  are  to  be  found  as  nice  fits 
as  in  any  other  part  of  the  car,  yet  the  chains  are  required  to  perform 
their  functions  under  more  adverse  circumstances  than  any  other  part 
of  automobile  mechanism.  Most  chains  are  exposed  to  the  grinding  action 
of  mud  and  grit,  and  conditions  are  such  that  proper  lubrication  is  a 
difficult  matter.  If  a  large  amount  of  lubricant  is  applied,  it  serves  only 
to  collect  dust  and  grit,  and  soon  becomes  a  destructive  agent  rather 
than  a  preventive  of  wear.  On  the  other  hand,  lack  of  lubrication  is 
nearly  as  bad,  for  rusting  may  then  set  in,  and  the  resulting  wear  would 
be  nearly  as  great. 

It  is  interesting  to  consider  the  effect  of  a  small  amount  of  wear  on 
every  wearing  portion  of  a  chain.  In  the  ordinary  block  chain  there  are 
four  wearing  surfaces  for  each  block  and  link,  viz.,  two  between  the  pin 
and  block  and  two  between  the  pin  and  link.  If  we  assume  that  there  is 
.01  inch  of  wear  between  each  of  these  pairs  .of  surfaces,  in  a  chain  of 
sixty  links  the  total  wear  would  amount  to  1.2  inches,  and  the  chain  would 
consequently  be  just  so  much  longer  than  when  new.  This  lengthening 
due  to  wear  is  commonly  known  as  "stretching." 

To  prevent  wear  as  much  as  possible  chains  should  be  frequently 
removed  and  cleaned  thoroughly,  by  first  placing  them  for  a  time  in 
gasoline  and  then  going  over  them  carefully  with  a  brush,  until  all  traces 
of  grit  are  removed.  When  perfectly  clean,  it  is  well  to  allow  them  to 
stand  for  an  hour  or  so  in  melted  tallow  mixed  with  half  its  weight  of 
graphite.  Heat  must  be  applied  to  the  bath  while  the  chains  are  in  it,  to 
prevent  it  from  hardening,  but  care  should  be  taken  that  it  does  not  boil. 
Afterward  the  chains  should  be  removed  and  all  surplus  tallow  wiped 
off  with  a  doth.  This  operation  impregnates  all  the  small  bearings  with 
a  good  lubricant  which  stays  in  place  and  prevents  mud  from  working 
in  between  the  wearing  surfaces.  Instead  of  making  the  tallow-graphite 

176 


mixture  himself,  the  motorist  can  buy  such  chain  lubricants  already 
compounded. 

Another  matter  of  importance  in  the  care  of  chains  is  to  keep  them 
at  the  proper  tension.  Too  great  a  tension  not  only  increases  wear  between 
the  various  parts  of  the  chain  itself,  and  between  the  chain  and  sprockets, 
but  also  causes  a  greater  loss  in  the  transmission  of  power  and  greater 
wear  in  the  sprocket  bearings.  A  slack  chain  is,  of  course,  more  likely 
to  climb  the  sprocket  or  to  jump  off  under  sudden  shocks.  The  proper 
tension  is  that  which  will  hold  the  chain  in  two  straight  lines  between 
the  tops  and  bottoms  of  the  sprockets  when  idle,  and  not  bring  a  greater 
strain  upon  the  sprocket  bearings  than  is  necessary  to  accomplish  this. 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  as  a  chain  wears,  its  "pitch"  varies,  and 
in  time  a  tendency  to  "ride"  the  teeth  of  the  sprocket  wheels  develops. 
This  increase  of  "pitch"  increases  the  amount  of  wear  on  the  sprocket 
teeth,  and,  as  a  result,  when  replacement  becomes  necessary,  a  new  chain 
will  not  fit  perfectly,  and  it  will  be  more  difficult  to  make  it  run  quietly. 
It  will  be  necessary  also  to  use  it  under  greater  tension  to  prevent  its 
jumping  off,  and  this  in  turn  will  result  detrimentally,  as  described  above. 
It  is  expedient,  therefore,  to  replace  chains  before  they  have  seriously 
damaged  the  sprockets. 

Another  cause  for  unnecessary  wear  in  chains,  which  is  perhaps  of 
less  serious  consequence  than  the  others  mentioned  herein,  is  failure  to 
keep  the  sprockets  in  proper  alignment.  In  cars  fitted  with  side  driving 
chains  this  condition  may  arise  through  the  shifting  of  the  axle  sidewise 
under  the  springs,  or  the  unequal  length  of  the  distance  rods.  Care 
should  be  taken  in  adjusting  the  chains  to  see  that  these  rods  are  taken 
up  or  let  out  equally,  so  that  each  pair  of  sprockets  revolves  in  the  same 
plane. 

A  set  of  substantial  master  links  is  essential  if  chains  are  to  be  handled 
with  any  degree  of  comfort.  If  there  is  sufficient  clearance  space,  it  is 
advisable  to  use  the  kind  which  is  fitted  with  two  bolts  and  nuts  which 
are  locked  in  place  by  cotter  pins.  The  nuts  can  be  loosened  with  a  small 
wrench,  and  the  parts  are  usually  of  sufficient  size  to  make  handling  easy. 
Much  time  and  energy  has  been  wasted  in  the  past  in  working  with  small, 
delicate  master  links,  which  are  a  heritage  of  the  bicycle  trade.  Chain 
cases  are  beginning  to  come  into  quite  extensive  use.  Their  employment 
permits  the  chain  to  run  in  a  dust-free  bath  of  lubricant,  but  more  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  this  matter  if  chains  are  to  survive  as  a  means  of 
transmitting  the  driving  power  of  automobiles.  The  chain  drive  is  com- 
paratively efficient  when  all  parts  are  clean  and  well  lubricated,  but  a  large 
part  of  this  efficiency  is  lost  when  they  are  bespattered  with  mud  and  grit, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  accompanying  wear  and  uncleanliness. 

(C.    L.    LAMPKIN.) 

A  very  convenient  and  efficient  way  of  cleaning  a  chain  is  to  have  a 
tank  made  of  galvanized  iron,  as  shown  in  Fig.  102,  with  two  wood  strips 
on  the  top  edges  to  bolt  or  screw  bearings  to.  At  one  end  put  a  dolly 
box  (or  bearing)  with  a  shaft  running  crosswise  of  the  tank,  on 
which  fasten  sprockets  of  different  pitches  to  accommodate  the  chains 
mostly  used.  On  the  other  end  use  dolly  boxes  with  a  shaft  running 

177 


FIG.  102. — SHEET  IRON  PAN  FOR  CLEANING 
AND  LUBRICATING  CHAIN. 


cross  wise  and  parallel  with 
the  sprocket  shaft  and  hav- 
ing a  flanged  roller  on  it. 
These  dolly  boxes  can  be 
made  of  wood,  if  desired, 
and  slotted  for  bolt  holes 
to  allow  for  adjustment  of 
the  chain  to  suit  the  various 
lengths,  or,  better  still,  the 
wood  strip  can  be  made  with 
deep  slots  and  accommo- 
date a  greater  difference  in 
lengths.  A  pulley  or  crank 
can  be  used  on  the  sprocket  shaft  to  apply  power  by. 

Adjust  the  chain  so  the  slack  side  will  just  clear  the  bottom  of  the 
tank,  place  a  common  sink  brush  on  a  crossbar  so  it  will  rub  the  chain 
lightly,  put  gasoline  (some  use  lye,  but  it  is  hard  on  the  hands)  enough 
in  the  tank  so  it  will  cover  the  lower  chain,  and  start  the  pulley  in 
motion.  A  very  few  minutes  will  suffice  to  clean  it  thoroughly.  Then 
wipe  dry  and  oil  with  good  lubricating  oil,  wiping  off  the  surplus  oil, 
and  then  apply  a  mixture  of  oil  and  graphite  mixed  to  the  consistency 
of  paste,  or  graphitoleo  will  answer  as  well. 

In  replacing  the  chain  on  the  car  the  method  of  procedure  depends 
upon  whether  the  rear  axle  has  spiders  of  open  construction,  or  whether 
it  has  the  differential  encased.  In  the  former  case  the  chain  can  be  put 
on  the  small  sprocket  first,  and  then  connected  on  the  rear  sprocket,  the 
same  as  a  bicycle  chain,  without  tools;  but  where  the  rear  sprocket  is 
encased  it  is  more  difficult  to  connect  the  chain  without  special  tools  or 


FIG.  103.— CHAIN  TIGHTENING  TOOL. 


FIG.   104. — CHAIN   PLIERS. 


without  loosening  the  adjustment  of  the  strut  rod.  Sometimes  baling 
wire  is  resorted  to,  and  it  is  not  to  be  despised,  for  it  has  helped  many 
an  autoist  out  of  trouble.  A  handy  device  for  connecting  chains,  and  one 
which  should  be  in  every  chain  user's  kit,  is  shown  in  Fig.  103.  The 
tongs  as  shown  in  Fig.  104  are  very  quick  and  handy,  but  the  tool  shown 
has  an  advantage  in  holding  the  chain  at  any  place  and  allowing  free 
use  of  both  hands  to  connect  the  link.  After  the  chain  is  connected 


178 


THE  HORSELESS  <CE 

-WORN  SPROCKET. 


and  the  cotter  pins  are  in,  it  should  be  adjusted  so  there  is  a  little  sag 
to    it,    just   enough   to    allow    it    to    move    freely,    as    a    tight    chain    will 

require  a  lot  of  power  to  drive  it. 
The  small  sprocket  should  also  be 
examined,  as  it  wears  much  faster 
than  the  large  one,  owing  to  the 
small  number  of  teeth  in  it.  If  it 
is  worn  so  the  teeth  have  a  hook,  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  105, 
it  will  have  a  tendency  to  wind  the 
chain  around  it,  and  the  latter  will 
drop  off  with  a  crashing  grind.  This 
can  be  remedied  to  some  extent  by 
filing  or  grinding  the  lump  from 
each  tooth,  but  if  the  sprocket  is 
much  worn,  it  is  better  to  put  on  a 
new  one.  A  sprocket  having  a 
greater  number  of  teeth  causes  less 

wear   on   the   chain,   as   the   latter    does   not    have   to   bend    so    short   in 
going  over  it. 

Some  makers  originally  made  the  mistake  of  gearing  their  cars  too 
high,  and  having  a  rear  axle  that  would  not  allow  the  use  of  a  larger 
sprocket,  on  account  of  the  housing  around  it,  their  only  alternative  was 
to  reduce  the  size  of  the  sprocket  pinion,  and  the  size  of  the  engine  shaft 
put  a  limit  to  that,  leaving  a  very  narrow  margin  for  fastening  the  sprocket 
to  the  low  speed  gear,  which   was  accomplished  by  using  a  number  of 
small    steel    pins    as    rivets ; 
but    these    sometimes    shear 
off   and   then    someone   has 
to  throw  out  a  tow  line,  and 
about  the  only  way  to  re- 
pair the   damage  is  to   put    F,G.  106.— BENDING  LINKS  TO  SHORTEN  CHAIN. 
new   rivets    in,   of   the  best 
material   available,   and   trust   to    faith    for   the   rest. 

When  a  chain  becomes  too  long  to  fit  the  sprockets  it  may  be  short- 
ened by  taking  a  V  shaped  piece  of  steel,  somewhat  sharp  at  its  edges, 
and  more  tapering,  and  drive  it  between  every  other  pair  of  side  plates, 
being  careful  to  drive  it  between  outside  plates  only,  and  also  not  to 
drive  it  in  too  far,  as  this  would  break  the  rivets.  This  will  leave  the 
chain  looking  like  the  sketch,  but  it  will  be  short  enough  to  give  better 
service.  Be  sure  your  tool  is  sharp  at  the  edges,  which  bend  the  links 
outward,  as  if  it  were  flat  at  these  points  it  would  only  break  the  rivets 
instead  of  bending  the  side  plates.  (See  Fig.  106.) 


THE   HORSELESS  AGE 


Preparing  a  Car  for  the  Winter's  Rest. 

(ALBERT  L.  CLOUGH.) 

When  winter  arrives,  except  in  certain  favored  localities,  motorists 
generally  prepare  to  put  their  cars  into  winter  quarters.  For  those  who 
live  in  cities,  this  total  discontinuance  of  the  use  of  motor  vehicles  is  not 


179 


so  much  a  matter  of  necessity  as  one  of  preference,  for,  in  point  of  fact, 
automobiles  can  be  used,  under  urban  conditions,  during  all  but  a  compara- 
tively few  days  of  the  winter  season;  but,  as  the  vast  majority  of  motor 
cars  are  avowedly  pleasure  vehicles,  and  as  little  or  no  pleasure  is  to  be 
obtained  from  driving  during  cold  weather,  no  matter  how  capable  the 
vehicles  themselves  are  of  overcoming  the  severe  conditions,  it  is  good 
judgment  to  give  the  faithful  car  a  rest  and  not  punish  oneself  by  heroic 
attempts  to  get  fun  out  of  a  swiftly  moving  vehicle  on  a  zero  day. 

To  users  who  live  in  the  country  or  in  small  towns  the  "jacking  up" 
process  is  unavoidable;  for  no  self  propelled  vehicle  can  profitably  be  used 
amid  the  snowdrifts  which  encumber  the  roads  of  the  major  part  of  the 
country. 

Those  fortunate  individuals  who  possess  continuously  heated  stables 
are  spared  the  painful  necessity  of  putting  their  cars  entirely  out  of  com- 
mission. Vehicles  housed  under  these  favorable  conditions  will  have  their 
lubrication  and  co'oling  systems  in  no  wise  disturbed  by  the  advent  of  cold 
weather,  and  advantage  may  be  taken  of  any  warm,  bright  days  which 
may  occur  during  the  winter,  when  the  roads  happen  to  be  in  good  con- 
dition, for  an  occasional  drive.  During  the  long  periods  of  the  winter 
when  automobiling  for  pleasure  is  obviously  out  of  the  question  such 
vehicles  may  be  jacked  clear  of  the  floor  in  order  to  relieve  the  tires  and 
a  cover  thrown  over  them,  but  still  it  is  but  a  matter  of  a  few  moments 
to  "get  away"  for  a  ride  during  a  favorable  spell  of  weather. 

The  cities  and  large  towns  of  the  country  are  now  so  well  supplied 
with  garages  that  are  kept  well  heated  during  the  entire  winter  season 
that  the  great  majority  of  users  can  find  warm  quarters  for  their  machines, 
if  they  so  desire.  Nor  are  the  rates  usually  charged  for  "dead"  storage 
during  the  winter  by  any  means  exorbitant.  Sometimes  arrangements  can 
be  made  with  the  proprietors  of  small  garages,  who  are  anxious  to  secure 
custom,  to  store  the  machine  on  "in  and  out"  storage,  so  called,  with  the 
privilege  of  occasional  use  during  the  cold  season,  at  a  figure  very  little  in 
excess  of  that  charged  for  "dead"  storage.  The  gasoline  and  oils  sold 
and  the  repairs  required  are  very  welcome  additions  to  the  business 
of  these  concerns  during  the  dull  season.  Automobilists  in  the  larger 
cities  who  wish  to  run  their  cars,  from  time  to  time,  during  the  cold 
season  can  usually  be  accommodated  at  garages  at  figures  considerably 
lower  than  those  charged  for  the  same  service  during  the  summer. 

When  a  car  is  kept  in  service  condition,  even  though  stored  in  a 
garage  which  is  claimed  to  be  heated  at  all  times,,  an  anti-freeze  solu- 
tion should  be  substituted  for  the  water  ordinarily  used,  to  provide  against 
possible  failures  to  keep  the  garage  warm  and  for  the  safety  of  the 
engine  whenever  the  car  may  be  taken  out. 

The  user  who  has  no  heated  stable,  who  does  not  care  to  incur  the 
expense  of  garage  storage,  and  who  has  decided  to  entirely  dispense  with 
the  services  of  his  car  during  the  cold  season,  will  naturally  place  his 
machine  in  his  own  or  a  neighboring  stable  and  will  aim  to  leave  it  in 
such  condition  that  it  shall  suffer  a  minimum  deterioration  from  disuse, 
cold  and  other  destructive  influences. 

The  most  important  precaution  to  be  taken  with  water  cooled  gasoline 
cars  and  with  steamers  is  the  complete  drawing  off  of  all  water  which  the 

180 


machine  contains,  whether  in  tanks,  radiators  or  piping.  Gasoline  cars  are 
always  supplied  with  a  draw-off  cock,  supposed  to  be  situated  at  the  lowest 
point  of  the  system  and  generally  located  in  the  bottom  of  the  radiator  or 
at  the  lowest  point  of  the  engine  jacket,  and  sometimes  more  than  one 
outlet  is  provided.  These  cocks,  when  opened,  are  supposed  to  allow  the 
cooling  system  to  empty  itself  completely,  but  occasionally  there  are  bends 
or  dips  in  the  connecting  piping  which  retain  some  of  the  liquid.  Wherever 
there  is  a  suspicion  that  such  a  dip  exists,  it  is  well  to  disconnect  the  piping 
and  allow  any  water  contained  therein  to  escape.  The  piping  to  the  pump 
may  also  be  disconnected  and  the  engine  run  for  a  minute  or  two,  in 
order  to  throw  out  and  evaporate  any  liquid  which  the  system  may  con- 
tain. When  all  water  has  apparently  flowed  out  of  the  system,  it  is  well  to 
"joggle"  the  car  forcibly  both  sidewise  and  back  and  forth  in  order  to 
expel  any  remaining  portions  of  the  liquid.  The  filling  plug  of  the  tank 
or  radiator  may  well  be  left  removed  and  the  disconnected  piping  not 
replaced,  and  it  is  very  advisable  to  perform  the  "drawing  off"  opera- 
tion when  the  car  is  warm  from  actual  operation. 

Instead  of  disconnecting  the  piping,  after  all  water  which  will  drain 
off  has  been  removed,  a  pint  or  two  of  denatured  alcohol  may  be  put 
into  the  radiator  and  the  engine  run  for  a  minute  or  so.  The  alcohol 
will  mix  with  any  water  which  remains  and  produce  a  mixture  which 
will  not  freeze. 

In  order  to  remove  all  'possible  danger  from  fire,  the  gasoline  tank 
of  the  car  may  as  well  be  completely  drawn  off  through  the  drain  cock 
which  is  usually  provided  for  the  purpose.  This  will  wash  out  most  of  the 
sediment  which  may  have  accumulated  during  the  season's  running,  and 
leave  the  tank  in  good  condition  for  next  year's  supply.  The  plug  may 
also  be  withdrawn  from  the  bottom  of  the  carburetor  float  chamber  and 
the  whole  system  thus  emptied  of  gasoline. 

Some  users  of  gasoline  engines  inject  a  quantity  of  kerosene  into  the 
cylinders  of  their  engines  and  into  the  valve  and  combustion  chambers,  and 
crank  the  motor  over  until  the  oil  has  worked  well  through  the  moving 
parts.  This  treatment  tends  to  remove  carbon  deposits  and  hardened  oil 
residues  and  leaves  the  parts  in  a  generally  clean  condition.  If  thoroughly 
done,  the  engine  will  not  stick  when  very  cold  weather  comes  on  and  may 
be  cranked  over  occasionally  when  the  owner  happens  to  think  of  it. 

There  is  no  special  advantage  to  be  gained  by  removing  the  oil  from 
cups  and  lubricators,  as  the  lubricant,  although  solidified  by  cold,  does  not 
produce  bursting  pressures,  as  does  water,  nor,  so  far  as  known,  is  mineral 
lubricating  oil  deteriorated  by  the  action  of  low  temperatures.  Some  sight 
feed  mechanical  lubricators,  however,  employ  water  in  their  feed  glasses, 
and  this,  it  is  needless  to  say,  should  be  carefully  drawn  off,  according  to 
directions  usually  furnished  with  these  oilers.  It  must  not  be  forgotten, 
also,  that  acetylene  generators  contain  water  reservoirs,  and  that  these 
should  be  completely  emptied,  if  the  car  is  to  be  subjected  to  freezing 
temperatures,  and  perhaps  may  be  advantageously  drawn  off  in  any  event 
if  the  lamps  are  not  to  be  used  for  some  time. 

Storage  batteries,  if  used,  should  be  removed,  and  taken  into  the 
house,  where  they  can  be  occasionally  inspected  and  taken  to  charge 

181 


occasionally  if  a  test  seems  to  warrant  this.  The  magneto,  too,  may  well 
be  removed  if  the  place  of  storage  is  likely  to  be  damp. 

If  one  wishes  to  start  upon  the  new  season  with  clean  chains,  these 
articles  may  be  removed  from  the  machine  and  placed,  during  the  winter, 
in  a  bath  of  kerosene,  from  which  they  will  emerge  in  the  spring  in  a 
much  improved  condition  of  cleanliness. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  subject  of  precaution,  when  putting  away 
the  machine  for  the  winter,  is  that  of  the  tires.  In  order  to  relieve  them 
of  all  strain  during  their  period  of  inactivity,  the  machine  should  be 
jacked  clear  of  the  floor  a  distance  of  two  or  three  inches  and  supported 
upon  wooden  horses.  The  four  points  of  support  should  be  the  axles, 
nearly  under  the  springs,  and  the  horses  or  other  supports  should  not  be 
so  placed  as  to  prevent  the  wheels  or  any  other  operating  part  of  the  car 
from  being  turned.  If  no  suitable  horses  are  to  be  had,  wooden  blocking 
will  suffice,  provided  it  is  secure,  with  no  likelihood  of  toppling  over  in 
case  the  machine  is  handled.  The  air  may  be  allowed  to  escape  from  the 
tires,  and  any  oil  which  may  have  collected  upon  them  should  be  wiped 
off  and  their  surfaces  given  a  layer  of  French  chalk  or  talc  powder.  Some 
owners  detach  their  tires  from  the  rims  and  remove  them  to  some  dimly 
lighted  room  of  nearly  uniform  temperature,  where  they  will  not  be  sub- 
jected to  the  destructive  influences  of  bright  sunshine  and  extreme  tem- 
perature changes.  The  casings  are  sometimes  wound  with  canvas  or 
burlap  and  laid  flat  upon  the  floor,  and  the  -inner  tubes,  deflated,  rubbed 
with  talc  powder  and  laid  flatly  so  that  they  may  not  become  creased.  The 
place  in  which  they  are  stored  should  not  be  damp. 

Whether  or  not  all  this  labor  is  warranted  by  the  results  is  highly 
problematical,  but  it  is  probably  good  judgment  to  apply  these  precautions 
to  new  tires  which  are  held  in  stock. 

It  is  important  that  the  body  and  other  painted  and  varnished  portions 
of  the  car  should  be  washed  perfectly  clean  of  mud  and  well  dried  before 
being  placed  in  winter  quarters,  as,  if  the  mud  is  allowed  to  remain 
through  the  cold  season,  it  cannot  be  removed  without  leaving  permanent 
marks  upon  the  varnished  surfaces.  Some  owners  make  a  practice  of 
having  their  cars  revarnished  during  the  late  fall  and  hauled  from  the 
paint  shop  to  their  winter  quarters.  This  allows  a  long  period  for  the 
drying  of  the  varnish  before  the  season  opens. 

Removable,  bright  portions  of  the  car,  such  as  lamps  and  horns,  may 
be  taken  off  and  placed  in  the  house,  if  desired,  and  cushions,  hampers 
and  mats  may  be  accorded  the  same  treatment,  especially  if  the  storage 
room  in  which  the  machine  is  left  be  damp  or  permeated  by  ammoniacal 
gases  or  vapors  from  the  "hay  motor"  department. 

The  bright,  exposed  portions  of  the  car  which  cannot  readily  be  re- 
moved, such  as  operating  levers  and  the  metal  work  on  the  dash  and  hood, 
may  be  given  a  light  but  complete  coat  of  vaseline  to  protect  them  from 
corrosion,  and  vaseline  may  also  be  used  upon  bright  portions  of  the  engine, 
speed  changing  gear  and  transmission  as  an  antidote  against  rust.  The 
valve  operating  mechanism  and  the  ignition  apparatus  of  contact  sparked 
engines,  operating  rods  which  are  not  painted,  the  drums  of  brakes  and 
speed  gears,  copper  engine  jacket,  metal  circulating  and  intake  pipes  and, 

182 


in  fact,  everything  which  is  intended  to  be  kept  bright,  may  well  share  in 
this  treatment. 

When  all  has  been  made  "snug"  a  cotton  cover  or  one  of  enamel  cloth 
should  be  thrown  over  the  whole  machine,  and  one  may  feel  that  all 
reasonable  care  has  been  taken  to  insure  a  minimum  of  deterioration. 


Spring  Overhauling. 

(ALBERT  L.  CLOUGH.) 

Every  motor  car  that  is  at  all  extensively  used  claims  as  its  due 
an  annual  general  overhauling,  and  March  or  April  is  often  found  to 
be  the  most  appropriate  season  in  which  to  perform  this,  as  the  condi- 
tion of  the  roads  during  these  months  is  usually  most  unfavorable. 
The  overhauling  process  is  essentially  an  inspection,  a  general  cleaning 
out,  tightening  up  and  readjusting  process,  and  involves,  perhaps,  some 
minor  replacements  as  well. 

SCREWS  AND  NUTS. 

About  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  look  to  the  tightness  of  every  bolt,  cap 
screw,  stud  and  other  holding  device  on  the  chassis.  This  requires  the 
car  to  be  run  over  a  pit  and  plenty  of  light  from  an  incandescent  lamp 
carried  upon  a  flexible  cord.  No  matter  how  conscientiously  a  car  is 
washed  while  in  service,  the  inside  of  the  frame  and  many  attached  parts 
will  probably  be  found  encrusted  with  mud,  almost  concealing  some  of  the 
nuts.  Everything  should  be  scraped  clean,  in  order  to  make  possible  a 
rigid  inspection.  If  any  nuts,  check  nuts  or  cotters  are  missing,  they 
should  be  at  once  replaced.  The  attachments  of  the  gear  case  and  engine 
base  to  the  frame  should  be  most  carefully  tightened,  if  found  to  require 
it,  and  the  fastenings  of  brake,  clutch  and  gear  operating  devices  to  the 
chassis,  as  well  as  those  of  the  pump  and  other  auxiliaries,  should  be 
seen  to  be  secure.  Special  attention  should  be  paid  to  spring  clip  nuts, 
as  any  looseness  there  will  lead  almost  certainly  to  broken  spring  leaves, 
and  the  integrity  of  spring  hanger  fastenings  requires  investigation.  The 
nuts  that  secure  the  body  to  the  frame  and  those  which  hold  the  running 
board  and  mud  guards  should  be  set  up  to  perfect  tightness.  Aside  from 
loose  nuts,  one  should  be  on  the  watch  for  loose  rivets  or  other  defects 
in  the  frame. 

Spring  leaves  should  be  inspected  for  breaks,  and  the  ends  of  the  leaves 
may    be    slightly    sprung    apart    and    a    little    graphite    lubricant    inserted 
between  them  in  order  to  obviate  squeaking. 
STEERING  GEAR. 

If  there  is  any  one  part  of  the  overhauling  of  a  car  which  should  be 
done  more  thoroughly  than  others  it  is  that  of  the  steering  gear.  The 
fastenings  of  the  foot  of  the  steering  column  to  the  frame  should  be 
demonstrated  to  be  tight,  and  if  the  irreversible  device  is  found  to  operate 
with  excessive  lost  motion,  this  backlash  should  be  taken  up.  This  can 
generally  be  done  with  modern  steering  devices.  Those  of  the  screw  and 
nut  type  sometimes  employ  a  split  nut,  the  halves  of  which  after  wear  can 
be  adjusted  tighter  around  the  screw,  and  those  of  the  worm  and  sector 
type  often  have  provisions  for  adjusting  the  sector  closer  to  the  worm 

183 


as  the  tooth  surfaces  wear  or  for  bringing  a  new  surface  of  the  sector  in 
mesh  with  the  worm.  The  steering  device  should,  of  course,  be  freshly 
packed  with  grease.  Every  joint  in  the  steering  linkage  should  be  inspected 
with  the  utmost  care,  because  its  condition  is  actually  a  life  and  death 
matter.  Where  ball  joints  are  used,  there  is  almost  always  provision  for 
taking  up  wear  by  adjusting  more  closely  the  cap  of  the  joint,  which  should 
be  fastened  with  great  care.  Where  joints  are  made  by  plain  cylindrical 
pins  no  adjustment  for  wear  is  possible,  and  new  ones  have  to  be  supplied, 
the  holes  in  the  ends  of  the  linkage  being  reamed  out  to  a  good  fit  with 
them.  Taper  pins  are  occasionally  used,  and  they  afford  some  adjustment 
for  wear.  All  nuts  responsible  for  holding  the  linkage  together  should  be 
locked  in  place  in  the  most  secure  manner.  The  castellated  nut  with  cotter 
pin  is,  on  the  whole,  the  best  safety  locking  device.  If  not  already  provided 
it  will  be  well  to  supply  each  joint  of  the  steering  linkage  with  one  of  the 
small  leather  grease  bags  which  buckle  about  the  rods  and  protect  the  joint 
from  dust,  as  well  as  constantly  providing  it  with  non-fluid  lubricant,  with 
which  the  bag  is  filled.  When  the  front  wheels  of  the  car  are  jacked  up 
the  steering  gear  should  turn  with  perfect  freedom,  and  care  should  be 
taken  that  both  wheels  are  adjusted  perfectly  parallel  in  the  line  of  the 
car  length  when  the  steering  wheel  is  set  for  straight  ahead,  otherwise  the 
tires  will  suffer  undue  wear.  The  pivot  pins  upon  which  the  steering 
knuckles  turn  should  be  demonstrated  to  be  secure.  When  the  front  wheels 
are  jacked  up  it  will  be  well  to  notice  whether  their  bearings  are  in  correct 
adjustment.  There  should  be  only  a  very  slight  amount  of  play  allowed, 
and  nothing  like  a  perceptible  wobble  permitted. 

AXLE  BEARINGS. 

Ball  and  roller  front  wheel  bearings  should  be  washed  out  with  gasoline, 
broken  balls  or  rollers  should  be  looked  for  and  the  bearings  packed  with 
grease  and  readjusted.  Perfect  freedom  of  rotation  without  "wobbling" 
shows  a  proper  adjustment.  Great  care  should  be  taken  that  the  wheels 
are  secured  from  any  possibility  of  working  off  the  axles. 

In  order  to  overhaul  the  live  rear  axle  of  a  chain  driven  car,  the  chain 
should  be  taken  off  and  the  car  be  lifted  clear  by  jacks  under  the  axle 
spring  clips.  The  axle  should  spin  freely  when  one  of  the  wheels  is  given 
a  turn,  and  there  should  be  no  grinding  or  crunching  sounds  proceeding 
from  the  differential.  Only  a  slight  amount  of  end  play  should  be 
observed  when  either  wheel  is  alternately  pushed  toward  and  pulled  away 
from  the  car  body,  and  only  the  slightest  amount  of  lateral  play  should  be 
found  when  either  wheel  is  lifted  by  hand.  The  axle  should  spin  silently 
without  any  grinding  or  grating  sounds.  The  wheels  themselves  must  be 
seen  to  be  most  securely  fastened  in  place.  If  the  above  tests  result  satis- 
factorily, it  will  only  be  necessary  to  pack  the  differential  case  with  grease, 
to  which  has  been  added  a  little  heavy  cylinder  oil,  and  to  see  that  the 
nuts  about  the  differential  frame  and  truss  rod  are  all  tight.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  wheels  show  too  much  play,  or  there  is  a  grinding  sound 
when  the  axle  is  rotated,  it  will  probably  have  to  be  disassembled  for  the 
readjustment  of  the  bearings,  or  the  possible  replacement  of  one  or  more 
of  them,  in  case  damage  has  been  incurred.  At  the  same  time  the 
differential  can  be  thoroughly  inspected. 

184 


WORN  SPROCKETS. 

If  the  teeth  of  the  rear  sprocket  show  a  very  considerably  different  out- 
line upon  their  opposite  faces  and  are  tending  to  become  "circular-saw 
like"  in  shape,  it  is  time  for  a  replacement.  Once  in  a  while  a  sprocket  is 
found  so  arranged  that  it  may  be  reversed — that  is,  the  tooth  faces  which 
have  heretofore  been  idle  except  upon  the  reverse,  and  are  therefore  but 
slightly  worn,  can  be  made  the  driving  faces,  and  the  life  of  the  sprocket 
prolonged. 

WEAR  IN  CHAINS. 

To  determine  whether  a  chain  is  seriously  worn  it  should  be  stretched 
out  tightly  on  a  smooth  floor,  and  then  its  ends  should  be  pushed  toward 
one  another  (without  buckling  it  out  of  a  straight  line).  The  difference 
in  its  length  when  tightly  stretched  out  and  when  its  ends  are  forcibly 
pushed  together  is  the  sum  total  of  the  wear  of  the  rivets.  If  this  amount? 
to  2  inches  or  more  in  a  chain  of  usual  length  it  may  well  be  retired, 
although,  of  course,  it  will  still  give  considerable  service.  It  is  rather  bad 
practice  to  put  a  new  chain  on  badly  worn  sprockets  or  a  badly  stretched 
chain  upon  new  sprockets.  Occasionally  most  of  the  stretch  in  a  chain  will 
be  found  localized  at  a  few  badly  hardened  links,  and  the  replacement  of 
these  will  obviate  the  necessity  of  discarding  the  whole.  In  replacing  a 
chain  the  security  of  the  master  link  fastenings  is  of  great  importance,  and 
the  utmost  care  should  be  taken  that  the  rear  axle  is  so  adjusted  by  the 
strut  rods  that  it  shall  be  in  perfect  parallelism  with  the  front  axle,  thus 
avoiding  chain  misalignment  and  excessive  tire  wear. 

Distance  rods  which  have  worn  their  supports  upon  the  rear  axle  and 
the  frame  are  responsible  for  much  rattling  when  a  car  is  in  use.  Rather 
than  endure  the  noise,  one  may  be  led  to  make  new  pins,  properly  fitted, 
to  hold  the  rods  in  front  and  rear. 

The  axle  of  a  double  chain  driven  car  is  a  very  simple  affair,  and  its 
inspection  usually  involves  only  the  condition  of  the  wheel  bearings,  and 
the  tightness  of  all  parts,  jncluding  the  distance  rods. 
REAR  AXLE  ADJUSTMENT. 

If  the  car  to  be  overhauled  has  a  shaft  driven  rear  axle,  the  change 
gear  should  be  placed  in  the  neutral  position,  with  the  rear  wheels 
jacked  up,  and  the  same  tests  as  to  end  and  side  play  and  smoothness 
of  operation  should  be  made.  The  propeller  shaft  should  also  be  tried 
for  undue  side  and  end  play.  The  axle  should  spin  freely  when  one 
wheel  is  turned  by  hand,  and  if  there  is  the  slightest  grind  or  bind  in 
any  part  of  the  rotation  the  cause  should  be  sought  and  remedied.  With 
one  rear  wheel  on  the  ground,  the  other,  when  turned,  should  spin 
freely,  carrying  the  drive  shaft  with  it.  Defects  in  an  axle  of  this  kind, 
unless  some  breakage  of  gears  or  bearings  has  occurred,  are  usually 
corrected  by  adjustment,  and  even  adjustment  is  but  very  seldom  required 
on  recently  designed  axles.  The  driving  gear  case  should,  of  course,  be 
packed  with  lubricant  and  the  grease  cups  over  the  bearings  fully  sup- 
plied. All  nuts  holding  the  halves  of  the  axle  and  gear  housing  together 
and  those  securing  inspection  plates  should  be  set  up. 

Adjustment  of  the  mesh  of  the  driving  pinion  with  its  gear  is  occa- 
sionally required,  and  the  necessity  for  it  is  usually  manifested  by  the 
increased  humming  of  the  gears.  Specific  instructions  as  to  how  this  is 

185 


effected  are  usually  contained  in  instruction  books.  The  universal  joint  or 
joints  require  consideration,  and  if  there  is  any  undue  wear  to  be 
observed,  the  worn  parts  should  be  replaced,  they  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  furnished  with  a  plentiful  supply  of  lubricant.  If  a  torque  rod 
is  used,  its  attachments  to  the  axle  and  to  the  frame  should  be  inspected 
and  any  wear  corrected,  as  this  may  result  in  rattling. 

BRAKE  ADJUSTMENT. 

The  brakes  demand  most  careful  scrutiny,  as  they  are  safety  devices. 
When  the  rear  axle  is  jacked  up,  it  is  well  to  be  sure  that  when  they 
are  fully  released  they  do  not  bind  upon  their  drums,  and  when  fully 
set  they  absolutely  lock  the  drum  against  all  attempts  to  turn  the  wheel 
by  hand.  There  is  only  one  safe  way,  however,  in  which  to  test  brakes, 
and  that  is  to  drive  the  car  part  way  up  a  short,  steep  but  safe  hill, 
stop  it  upon  the  steepest  portion  and  see  whether  both  sets  of  brakes 
hold  as  they  should.  The  inspection  in  the  stable  can  assure  one  that 
the  brake  operating  linkages  are  securely  fastened  together,  and  work 
freely,  that  they  do  not  rattle  against  any  other  parts,  and  that  brake 
shoes  or  bands  and  their  operating  toggles  or  cams  are  not  worn  or 
insecure  in  any  way.  It  is  well  to  lubricate  all  joints  at  the  time,  as  too 
little  attention  is  paid  to  this  matter  during  the  season.  If  the  brake 
bands  are  badly  worn,  relining  may  be  necessary,  and  this  is  a  good  time 
to  put  on  linings  of  one  of  the  non-combustible  asbestos  fabrics,  which 
are  largely  used  for  this  purpose.  The  equalizing  mechanism  should 
insure  the  equal  application  of  the  two  brakes  of  each  set,  and  it  is 
desirable  to  make  a  test  to  determine  this  when  the  car  is  jacked  up.  If 
equality  of  action  is  absent  adjustment  will  usually  secure  it. 

FAULTY  COMPRESSION. 

After  the  running  gear  and  its  attachments  are  all  secure  and  in 
proper  adjustment,  the  power  plant  demands  attention.  After  a  sea- 
son's use  the  engine  will  be  none  the  worse  for  a  thorough  overhauling. 
Quite  likely  one  or  more  cylinders  will  not  show  their  usual  compres- 
sion. The  motor  should  be  cranked  over  and  the  cylinders  which  leak 
compression  determined.  It  will  then  be  well  to  gradually  introduce, 
through  the  pet  cocks  or  spark  plug  holes,  a  liberal  quantity  of  kero- 
sene, allowing  the  crank  case  to  fill  with  it  to  such  a  height  as  to  give 
a  splash  when  the  engine  is  turned  over.  The  engine  should  be  cranked 
briskly  quite  a  number  of  times  and  kerosene  injected  once  in  a  while. 
This  treatment  may  be  applied,  from  time  to  time,  for  a  day  or  two, 
in  order  that  carbon  deposits  may  be  softened  and  gummed  oil  removed. 
In  order,  however,  to  thoroughly  remove  carbon  deposits  from  the  pis7 
ton  heads  they  should  be  removed  and  gone  over  with  a  scraper.  The 
kerosene  treatment  sometimes  improves  the  compression,  freeing  the 
rings  of  carbonized  oil  which  prevented  them  from  springing  out. 

VALVE  GRINDING. 

Unless  it  has  been  done  recently,  all  valves  on  cylinders  which  show 
any  leakage  of  compression  should  be  reground.  In  engines  which  have 
their  valve  seats  integral  with  the  cylinder  casting  the  utmost  care  must 
be  taken  that  not  the  slightest  particle  of  the  abrasive  mixture  of  fine 
emery  and  machine  oil  gets  into  the  passages  and  cylinder,  as  irreparable 
injury  would  be  done  to  cylinder  bores  and  pistons.  Waste  may  be  stuffed 

186 


into  the  space  round  the  valve  before  the  grinding  operation  to  catch 
the  excess  of  abrasive,  and  all  remaining  particles  should  be  carefully 
wiped  off.  Valves  in  removable  cages  are  most  conveniently  ground. 

Note:  Instructions  for  valve  grinding  have  been  given  in  the  chapter 
on  "Repair  Suggestions." 

The  valve  springs  should  be  demonstrated  to  be  of  uniform  strength, 
and  the  valves  should  close  positively  and  freely. 
LEAKS  PAST  PISTONS. 

If,  after  the  valves  appear  to  be  tight,  a  cylinder  still  shows  leakage 
of  compression,  it  should  be  removed  from  the  crank  case  and  the  piston 
taken  out.  If  a  ring  is  found  broken  or  partially  black  with  oil,  thus 
showing  that  it  does  not  make  perfect  contact  with  the  cylinder  wall, 
new  rings  will  have  to  be  fitted.  Instructions  will  be  found  later  in 
this  work  as  to  the  fitting  of  rings  and  concerning  the  general  sub- 
ject of  faulty  compression.  A  few  extra  rings  may  well  be  kept  on 
hand.  Sometimes  it  proves  quite  difficult  to  determine  whether  leakage 
of  compression  is  taking  place  past  the  valves  or  past  the  piston.  If 
a  supply  of  compressed  air,  intended  for  tire  inflation,  is  at  hand,  it 
can  be  usefully  employed  to  locate  compression  defects.  An  ordinary 
pipe  plug  which  fits  the  spark  plug  holes  may  be  drilled  out  to  take  a 
tire  valve  stem,  from  which  the  valve  has  been  removed,  and  the  valve 
stem  soldered  into  the  plug.  This  plug  may  be  screwed  into  the  spark 
plug  hole  of  the  cylinder  to  be  tested  and  TOO  pounds  air  pressure  turned 
on,  after  the  engine  has  been  blocked  on  the  compression  stroke.  It  is 
then  usually  very  easy  to  locate  compression  leaks,  as  there  is  so  large 
a  volume  of  air  escaping.  A  lighted  candle  held  at  the  exhaust  or  inlet 
port  will  show  any  escape  of  air,  and  the  air  may  be  detected  passing 
the  rings  in  a  similar  way.  By  blocking  the  engine  at  different  points 
in  the  stroke  the  extent  of  the  leak  in  such  positions  may  be  determined. 
Caps  which  close  the  valve  openings  in  cylinder  heads  sometimes  leak, 
as  do  screwed  in  valve  cages,  and  may  require  copper  gaskets  under  them. 
Spark  plugs  and  pet  cocks  also  sometimes  develop  leaks. 
ENGINE  BEARINGS. 

When  the  compression  has  been  rendered  satisfactory,  the  bearings 
of  the  engine  require  investigation.  The  lower  half  of  the  crank  case 
should  be  removed,  as  well  as  the  hand  hole  covers,  if  any.  The  main 
bearings,  as  well  as  the  crank  pin  bearings,  should  be  freely  squirted 
with  gasoline  in  order  to  clean  out  the  old  oil.  Looseness  in  the  main 
shaft  bearings  can  be  detected  by  forcibly  prying  upward  first  upon  the 
flywheel  and  then  upon  the  forward  end  of  the  shaft  (if  it  can  be 
reached),  and  also  upon  the  shaft  between  bearings.  If  there  is  much 
looseness  it  can  be  felt,  and  the  oil  will  squeeze  out  of  the  bearings. 
Removable  shims,  between  the  bearing  caps  and  their  stands,  are  now 
usually  provided,  and  such  of  these  as  will  give  the  necessary  take-up 
should  be  removed  and  the  cap  securely  replaced.  If  no  shims  are  pro- 
vided, the  flat  portions  of  the  caps  should  be  slightly  filed  down  to  give 
the  requisite  adjustment. 

In  order  to  determine  if  there  is  looseness  in  the  connecting  rod  tips, 
the  crank  shaft  should  be  blocked  and  the  connecting  rods  forcibly 
"worked"  by  hand  in  the  direction  of  their  length.  If  any  lost  motion 

187 


is  found,  it  may  be  taken  up  as  in  the  case  of  the  main  bearings.  When 
these  bearings  have  been  properly  adjusted,  with  all  nuts  tight,  the  engine 
should  spin  freely  without  stiffness,  when  cranked,  with  the  spark  plugs 
removed.  It  is  of  great  importance  that  all  bearing  caps  should  be  left 
with  their  nut  locking  devices  properly  replaced.  The  bearings  of  the 
cam  shaft  or  shafts  should  be  demonstrated  to  be  properly  adjusted. 
Some  idea  of  the  wear  in  the  wrist  pin  bushings  may  be  obtained  by 
working  the  connecting  rod  tips  sidewise,  when  they  are  free  from 
their  crank  pins. 

In  case  any  of  the  engine  bearings  are  worn,  so  much  that  their 
further  use  is  impracticable,  they  must  be  provided  with  new  bushings 
or  rebabbitted  in  place,  as  the  case  may  be.  As  the  proper  quality  of 
bearing  metal  and  of  babbitt  is  not  obtainable  with  certainty  at  the 
usual  repair  shop,  it  is  well  to  procure  the  necessary  bearing  bushings 
from  the  factory,  if  this  is  possible.  After  rebushing,  the  engine  should 
preferably  be  run  very  carefully  for  a  time  until  the  bushings  are  fully 
worn  in. 

The  nuts  which  hold  the  cylinders  to  the  crank  case,  those  which 
secure  the  lower  half  of  the  case  to  the  upper,  and  the  nuts  or  clamps 
which  fasten  inlet  and  exhaust  pipes  to  the  valve  chambers,  indeed  every 
nut  or  other  holding  device  about  the  engine,  should  be  left  properly  set  up. 

All  looseness  in  the  valve  operating  mechanism  should  be  taken  up  by 
means  of  the  push  rod  adjustments  provided,  as  its  presence  will  make 
the  motor  noisy.  The  push  rods  should  just  be  free  of  the  valve  stems 
except  when  the  cams  come  into  action.  Leaks  in  the  intake  system  of 
the  motor  should  also  be  guarded  against. 

After  a  long  period  of  service,  or  after  standing  idle  for  some  time,  the 
cooling  system  of  a  car  may  require  some  looking  over.  It  is  a  good  plan 
thoroughly  to  wash  out  the  system  with  water  from  the  city  service.  By 
breaking  a  joint  in  the  piping  and  attaching  a  hose  to  one  end,  water  under 
pressure  may  be  forced  through  the  radiator  and  the  engine  jacket  and 
piping.  A  considerable  amount  of  rust  .and  fine  mud  will  usually  be 
washed  out.  The  following  chemical  method  has  been  recommended  by 
J.  H.  Lester  in  the  Autocar: 

Caustic  soda  has  long  been  known  as  a  substance  which  prevents  the 
formation  of  scale  by  forming  a  more  or  less  granular  and  easily  removable 
sediment  instead  of  a  dense  armor  plating  on  the  inside  of  pipes  and  boilers. 
This  substance  has,  however,  another  and  quite  distinct  action,  which  is 
taken  advantage  of  by  engineers  to  remove  scale  already  formed.  It  is  not 
clear  exactly  why  this  action  takes  place,  since  neither  carbonate  of  lime 
nor  sulphate  of  lime — the  main  constituents  of  boiler  scale — appears  to  be 
dissolved  by  caustic  soda.  The  effect  of  the  caustic  soda,  at  any  rate,  is 
to  break  up  hard  deposits  of  scale  into  a  powder  or  sludge,  which  can  be 
easily  removed  by  subsequent  thorough  flushing  out  of  the  pipes  with 
water.  The  particular  point  to  which  it  is  desired  to  draw  attention  is  that 
the  action  above  referred  to  only  takes  place  if  the  strength  of  the  solution 
of  caustic  soda  lies  between  about  15  and  22  per  cent.  With  solutions 
appreciably  weaker  or  stronger  than  these  figures,  the  action  is  very  slow 
or  is  inappreciable. 

The  whole  of  the  water  in  the  circulating  system  must  be  run  out  and 

188 


measured,  taking  care  that  no  water  is  left  which  would  have  the  effect  of 
diluting  the  solution  which  is  to  take  the  place  of  the  water.  The  solution 
must  be  made  by  dissolving  2^  pounds  of  solid  caustic  soda  so  that  it 
makes  i  gallon  of  solutitih.  If,  say,  5  gallons  is  the  capacity  of  the  whole 
system,  it  will  clearly  be  necessary  to  dissolve  12^2  pounds  of  the  soda. 
Considerable  heat  is  generated  when  the  soda  is  dissolved,  and  frequent 
stirring  is  necessary  unless  the  soda  is  hung  in  an  iron  basket  just  under 
the  surface  of  the  liquid.  When  the  liquid  has  cooled  it  may  be  introduced 
to  the  circulating  system  until  this  is  entirely  filled.  The  soda  is  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  system  all  night,  and  is  run  out  in  the  morning.  It  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  caustic  soda  will  corrode  aluminum  or  zinc,  and 
must  not  be  used  if  the  system  should  have,  for  instance,  an  aluminum 
pump  cover.  It  acts  to  some  extent  upon  rubber  and  brass,  but  is  not 
likely  to  seriously  damage  such  fittings  in  one  night.  After  running  out 
the  soda  a  hose  pipe  and  water  supply  should  be  connected  to  the  system, 
and  a  good  stream  of  water  driven  through  at  fair  pressure  for  some  time 
— say,  five  minutes.  The  solution  of  the  caustic  soda  may  be  carried  out 
in  an  iron  bucket. 

It  is  well  to  open  the  draw-off  cock  in  the  bottom  of  the  carburetor 
float  chamber  and  thus  expel  any  stale  gasoline  which  the  tank  contains. 
This  will  wash  out  foreign  particles  from  the  tank,  pipe  and  carburetor. 
If  there  is  a  pocket  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  designed  to  collect  water  and 
dirt,  its  plug  should  be  removed  and  some  of  the  gasoline  allowed  to  flush 
throughout  it. 

Some  clean  gasoline  may  be  washed  through  the  system  after  the  stale 
liquid  has  passed  out.  If  there  is  a  screen  in  the  bottom  of  the  gasoline 
tank  or  in  the  entrance  to  the  float  chamber  it  should  be  removed  and 
cleansed.  The  gasoline  pipe  should  be  carefully  inspected  for  leaks,  as 
should  be  the  unions  connecting  it  to  the  tank,  and  when  the  tank  is  refilled 
and  the  gasoline  turned  on  the  carburetor  the  float  chamber  should  fill 
properly,  but  allow  no  drip  of  gasoline.  If  fuel  does  drip  from  the 
carburetor  there  is  probably  some  foreign  matter  caught  in  the  needle  valve 
of  the  float,  and  this  should  be  removed.  Sometimes  this  needle  valve 
requires  to  be  slightly  ground  into  its  seat  in  order  to  make  it  tight.  If 
a  hollow  metal  float  is  vised  it  is  always  in  order  to  make  sure  that  it 
does  not  leak,  thus  losing  its  buoyancy  and  causing  the  carburetor  to 
flood.  If  the  top  of  the  vaporizing  chamber  be  removed  no  gasoline 
ought  to  be  seen  escaping  from  the  spraying  nozzle  until  the  carburetor 
is  primed  slightly,  when  it  should  flow  freely  from  it,  thus  demonstrating 
that  the  spraying  passage  is  unobstructed. 

If  the  pressure  system  of  fuel  feed  is  used  both  air  and  gasoline  lines 
should  be  free  from  leaks  or  clogging,  and  the  relief  valve  on  the  exhaust 
pressure  line  should  be  seen  to  be  working  properly.  The  automatic  air 
valve  ought  to  move  freely  under  the  action  of  its  spring.  All  adjust- 
ments should  be  firm,  and  all  nuts  about  the  carburetor  and  intake  pipe 
should  be  set  up  properly.  If  a  screen  is  used  at  the  mouth  of  the  air 
intake  it  should  be  cleaned. 

IGNITION  SYSTEM. 

It  is  quite  probable  that  the  car's  ignition  system  can  be  improved  by 
a  thorough  overhauling.  If  primary  batteries  have  hitherto  been  used  as 

189 


the  source  of  current  it  may  be  well  to  consider  the  advisability  of  replacing 
them  with  accumulators,  which  would  probably  prove  decidedly  more  con- 
stant and  reliable  and  perfectly  convenient,  if  charging  facilities  are  avail- 
able. A  pair  of  six  volt  accumulators,  of  fairly  large  size,  will  be  found 
the  best  equipment  to  purchase.  They  may  be  installed  in  place  of  the  dry 
batteries  without  change  of  wiring.  It  is  also  advisable  to  consider  the 
installation  of  a  magneto  if  there  is  none  and  space  considerations  favor 
the  idea. 

PURCHASING  DRY  CELLS. 

If  dry  cells  are  in  use  the  old  ones  in  the  car  might  as  well  be  thrown 
away  and  new  cells  bought  of  a  reliable  electrical  supply  dealer  who 
handles  them  extensively  and  is  thus  likely  to  have  recently  received  a 
fresh  consignment.  The  method  of  selecting  new  cells  has  been  explained 
in  the  chapter  on  "Ignition." 

If  there  is  any  possibility  of  dampness  entering  the  battery  box  it 
is  recommended  that  the  paper  cartons  of  the  cells  be  soaked  in  melted 
paraffin  in  order  to  render  them  more  insulating.  If  cells  fitted  with 
spring  clip  terminals,  instead  of  screw  posts,  can  be  obtained,  they  will 
prove  much  easier  to  connect  and  perfectly  free  from  the  danger  of 
accidental  disconnection,  which  often  occurs  by  the  working  loose  of 
ordinary  binding  screws.  Special  attention  should  be  paid  to  tightly  packing 
the  cells  in  their  box,  so  that  they  may  not  shift  and  break  the  con- 
necting wires. 

If  accumulators  are  installed  on  the  car  they  should  be  freshly  charged, 
the  height  and  specific  gravity  of  the  electrolyte  seen  to  be  normal  and 
the  contacts  cleaned.  In  case  any  trouble  has  been  experienced  with  an 
accumulator's  losing  its  charge  unduly  fast  it  may  be  that  it  contains  slight 
internal  short  circuits.  It  is  not,  as  a  rule,  best  to  try  to  repair  an  accu- 
mulator, but  rather  to  send  it  to  the  manufacturer  for  renovation. 
TIMER. 

One  should  carefully  examine  thfe  timer  or  distributor  to  see  that  it  is 
not  worn  out  so  that  it  is  "wobbly"  upon  the  shaft.  If  it  has  deteriorated 
into  this  condition  and  cannot  readily  be  put  in  shape  it  is  as  well  to 
purchase  a  new  one — preferably  one  of  the  adjustable  ball  bearing  type. 
A  "wobbly"  timer  is  almost  sure  to  make  poor  contacts  and  cause  missing, 
especially  at  high  speeds,  and,  as  the  cost  of  a  timer  is  not  great  in  com- 
parison with  the  annoyance  which  a  defective  one  causes,  it  pays  to  invest 
in  a  new  one  of  the  latest  type.  In  case  the  timer  is  found  in  good  condi- 
tion it  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  the  set  screws  securing  the  rotating 
portions  to  the  shaft  seen  to  be  tight.  If  intended  to  be  lubricated  in  this 
manner  the  timer  case  should  be  packed  with  grease.  The  wires  which 
are  connected  to  the  timer  case  should  make  firm  connections  in  their 
binding  posts,  and  should  be  bent  to  and  fro  slightly  to  see  that  they 
have  not  become  broken.  These  timer  wires  are  the  most  likely  portion  of 
the  electrical  wiring  system  to  give  trouble,  as  they  are  constantly  being 
bent  by  the  rotation  of  the  timer.  They  should  be  examined  most  carefully 
and  replaced  if  they  are  at  all  suspected. 

COIL  ADJUSTMENT. 

The  coils  may  very  likely  require  adjustment.  It  is  of  importance  to 
have  all  coils  of  a  set  adjusted  alike,  and  to  facilitate  this  a  special 

100 


coil  testing  ammeter  has  been  put  upon  the  market  which  is  provided 
with  a  split  plug  terminal  by  which  it  may  be  "plugged  into"  the  primary 
circuit  by  inserting  the  terminal  into  the  plug  hole  of  the  battery  switch. 
By  cranking  the  engine  the  coils  may  successively  be  brought  into  action, 
and  their  current  consumptions  measured  and  adjusted  by  their  vibrator 
screws.  The  platinum  contacts  should  be  cleaned  and  smoothed,  and  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  battery  is  "poled"  as  the  coil  maker  prescribes. 
All  adjusting  and  binding  screws  should  be  permanently  set  up  when  the 
adjustments  seem  satisfactory. 

If  a  magneto  is  used,  its  bearings  should  be  supplied  with  the  prescribed 
lubrication,  the  make  and  break  device  should  be  lightly  oiled  at  its  pivots, 
the  platinum  points  should  be  cleaned  and  adjusted  as  to  their  separation 
and  new  contacts  obtained  if  necessary.  The  distributor  should  be  cleaned 
and  all  wires  examined  for  breakages,  wornout  insulation  and  the  tight- 
ness of  their  connections. 

LUBRICATOR. 

The  mechanical  lubricator  and  its  oil  delivering  tubes  may  properly  be 
cleaned  out.  It  should  be  emptied  of  oil  and  a  quantity  of  gasoline  put  into 
it.  'This  should  be  forced  through  the  pumps  and  tubes  by  running  the 
lubricator  mechanism  briskly  by  hand,  with  the  feed  screws  open  widely. 
This  treatment  tends  to  clean  out  gummed  oil  and  foreign  particles.  If 
any  one  of  the  individual  pumps  fails  to  act  properly  it  should  be  dissected 
and  the  cause  located  and  rectified.  Special  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  oil  pipes  are  not  split  or  otherwise  leaky,  and  that  they  are  tight  at 
their  unions  with  the  lubricator  and  their  points  of  delivery,  as  bearings 
not  infrequently  run  dry,  although  the  sight  feeds  show  a  delivery  of 
lubricant,  simply  because  a  delivery  tube,  through  some  disarrangement, 
does  not  conduct  the  oil  to  the  bearing. 

The  oil  reservoir  and  the  crank  case  of  an  engine  lubricated  by  the 
self-contained  circulating  system  should  be  thoroughly  flushed  out  with 
kerosene,  the  strainer  thoroughly  cleaned,  the  oil  gauge  cleaned  out  and 
the  required  amount  of  fresh  oil  supplied.  The  telltale  will  also  require 
cleaning. 

GEAR  Box. 

The  stale  oil  from  the  change  speed  gear  case  should  be  drawn  off 
through  its  drain  plug,  and  the  gears,  shafts  and  inside  of  the  case  should 
be  washed  out  with  gasoline,  an  oil  gun  filled  with  gasoline  being  used  to 
squirt  the  bearings  and  to  reach  inaccessible  parts.  The  condition  of  the 
gear  teeth  and  high  speed  clutch  jaws  should  be  noted,  as  the  car  is  moved 
about  a  little  by  cranking  the  engine  with  the  clutch  in,  and  the  condition 
of  the  bearings  can  be  determined  by  attempting  to  work  the  shafts  up  and 
down,  by  hand,  in  their  journals.  If  plain  bearings  are  used  there  may  be 
need  of  taking  up  a  little  wear  by  removing  shims  and  setting  the  caps 
down.  All  bearing  cap  nuts  should  be  left  perfectly  tight,  and  the  nuts 
which  secure  gears  to  shaft  flanges,  if  there  are  any,  should  be  tested  for 
tightness.  The  gear  shifting  mechanism  should  be  demonstrated  to  be 
secure  in  every  respect  and  to  work  freely.  After  everything  seems  in  good 
ordegl  fresh  oil  should  be  supplied  to  the  case,  the  shaft  bearings  squirted 
with  oil  and  the  cover  securely  fastened  on. 

191 


CLUTCH. 

The  clutch  operating  mechanism  should  be  carefully  inspected  to  be  sure 
that  everything  is  secure  and  operating  freely.  Under  this  head  come  auto- 
matic interlocking  devices  connected  with  the  brakes.  Speaking  of  operat- 
ing devices  in  general,  the  average  motorist  pays  too  little  attention  to 
inspecting  their  fastenings  and  joints,  upon  which  his  safety  so  largely 
depends.  There  is  always  a  possibility  that  a  pin  may  drop  out  from  some 
important  joint,  which  may  perhaps  render  him  helpless,  so  far  as  controll- 
ing his  car  is  concerned.  Check  nuts  and  cotter  pins  are  performing  very 
responsible  offices  in  holding  together  operating  devices,  and  their  condition 
should  be  most  carefully  observed.  If  the  clutch  is  of  the  leather  lined 
cone  type  it  is  likely  that  its  band  will  require  treatment  with  castor  or 
neatsfoot  oil,  especially  in  case  the  car  has  stood  idle  in  a  warm  room 
for  a  long  time.  The  thrust  bearing  and  spring  should  be  inspected.  In 
case  the  clutch  is  of  the  metallic  type  the  frictional  surfaces  should  be 
cleaned  of  stale  oil  and  all  grit  which  may  have  reached  them.  Fresh 
oil  should  be  supplied  to  the  clutch  case  and  the  operating  mechanism. 

-  If  the  car  is  equipped  with  a  planetary  change  speed  gear  the 'low  speed 
and  reverse  bands  may  require  to  be  adjusted,  or  even  relined  with  asbestos 
fabric  if  greatly  worn.  The  high  clutch,  if  metallic,  will  most  likely 
require  cleaning  and  adjustment.  If  the  gear  grinds  or  rattles  noticeably 
when  on  the  low  speed  or  reverse,  it  may  be  well  to  remove  and  disassem- 
blt  it.  Perhaps  the  pinions  have  worn  on  their  studs,  or  something  may  be 
loose.  Some  improvement  can  perhaps  be  made  when  the  trouble  is  known. 
The  gear  should  finally  be  carefully  packed  with  non-fluid  lubricant.  The 
foregoing  suggestions  by  no  means  cover  all  the  points  which  may  be 
attended  to  when  a  general  overhauling  is  undertaken,  and  necessarily  do 
not  apply  to  cars  of  all  types.  Every  motorist  knows,  by  experience,  what 
parts  of  his  car  are  most  likely  to  require  thorough  overhauling,  and  will 
act  accordingly.  The  time  that  he  spends  upon  his  car  in  "going  over"  it 
will  be  well  invested,  as  it  will  in  all  probability  prevent  its  being  "laid  up'' 
during  its  period  of  greatest  usefulness — the  spring  and  summer  months. 


Watching  the  Car  While  on  the  Road. 

(ALBERT  L.  CLOUGH.) 

It  may  be  assumed  that  every  owner  of  a  motor  vehicle  either  has  his 
car  frequently  and  thoroughly  inspected  in  the  stable  or  the  garage,  or  else 
(what  is  far  more  satisfactory)  looks  it  over  carefully  himself  at  short 
intervals,  and  thus  forestalls  the  troubles  which  might  otherwise  develop 
when  the  car  is  on  the  road.  Nevertheless,  the  operator  should  cultivate 
a  watchfulness  of  the  car's  performance  while  in  service  and  a  sensitive- 
ness to  the  first  indications  of  derangement  of  any  sort,  and  be  willing  to 
improve  part  of  the  time  allowed  him  at  stops  to  make  a  superficial  exam- 
ination of  the  car's  condition.  By  thus  acquiring,  as  it  were,  a  close 
"sympathy"  with  his  vehicle,  defects  may  often  be  detected  at  their  very 
earliest  inception  and  serious  consequences  avoided.  The  careless  opedfctor 
who  does  not  heed  the  inarticulate  signs  of  distress  which  sometimes  arise 

192 


from  his  mechanical  charge,  but  who  pushes  on  until  the  machine  stops,  is 
the  man  who  has  to  approve  the  long  repair  bills. 

Hearing  and  that  other  sense,  whatever  it  may  be  (probably  some  mani- 
festation of  the  tactile  or  muscular  sense),  which  makes  one  sensitive  to  a 
change  of  motion  or  to  vibration  are  the  chief  aids  which  an  operator  has 
in  watching  the  performance  of  an  automobile  in  service. 
MISSING  EXPLOSIONS. 

To  the  experienced  driver  of  a  single  or  double  cylinder  car  a  single 
missed  explosion  is  not  only  instantly  recognized,  no  matter  what  else  he 
may  be  thinking  about  at  the  time,  but  the  fact  is  almost  painfully  forced 
upon  his  attention.  It  is  a  sort  of  mechanical  "palpitation  of  the  heart." 
The  sound  of  the  exhaust  is  missed  and  the  regular  rhythm  of  the  car 
movement  is  interrupted.  A  four  or  six  cylinder  engine,  running  at  good 
speed  and  adequately  muffled  (as  they  usually  are),  has  so  slight  a  vibra- 
tory effect  and  its  exhausts  mingle  into  so  continuous  a  "purr"  that  a 
single  missed  explosion  is  hardly  perceptible  even  to  the  trained  operator. 
In  fact,  such  a  car  may  be  driven  quite  a  distance,  with  one  cylinder  not 
firing,  without  the  defect  being  perceptible,  unless  the  reduced  power 
development  makes  the  condition  manifest. 

If  the  cylinder  having  defective  ignition  misses  for  a  time  and  then 
begins  to  fire  regularly,  the  condition  will  probably  be  noticed  on  account 
of  the  changes  in  motion  of  the  car.  If  a  four  cylinder  car  has  a  muffler 
cut-out  which  may  be  opened  from  time  to  time,  missed  explosions  may  be 
detected  when  the  motor  is  running  at  low  speed,  but  when  turning  at  a 
rapid  rate  a  single  ignition  failure  is  hardly  to  be  positively  identified  by 
the  average  operator.  A  driver  should  be  ever  on  the  watch  for  faulty 
ignition  in  his  motor,  as  it  results  in  reduced  power,  loss  of  fuel  and  some 
extra  stresses  on  the  working  parts. 

KNOCKING. 

Good  modern  motors,  when  in  condition,  operate  practically  without  any 
clanking  or  pounding  sounds,  and  thus  the  operator's  ears  should  be  alert 
for  any  sounds  of  knocking  proceeding  from  the  engine.  When  a  knock 
that  is  evidently  not  attributable  to  a  too  much  advanced  spark  begins  to 
develop,  the  danger  signal  which  it  conveys  should  be  at  once  heeded. 
Such  a  pound  will  usually  make  itself  apparent  when  the  engine  is  slowed 
down,  under  full  throttle,  while  climbing  a  hill. 

If  such  sounds  develop  rather  suddenly  it  is  a  pretty  sure  sign  that  the 
engine  has  become  hot  from  lack  of  oil  or  of  water  circulation.  If  the 
cause  is  preignition,  due  to  incandescent  carbon  deposits  in  the  combustion 
space,  the  trouble  will  probably  have  been  noticed  before  and  will  cause 
no  immediate  anxiety.  The  difficulty  may  be  due  to  a  loosening  of  the 
connecting  rod  bearings  on  the  crank  pins  or  to  a  loosening  of  some  other 
mechanical  fastening  about  the  engine. 

KNOCKING  DUE  TO  OVERHEATING. 

Knocking  due  to  the  engine's  overheating  and  self  igniting  its  charges 
is  of  a  peculiarly  sharp,  almost  metallic,  clanging  nature,  and  is  generally 
accompanied  by  considerable  smoke  arising  from  the  burning  off  of  oil 
from  the  outsides  of  the  cylinders.  There  is  usually,  too,  a  very  offensive 
and  pungent  exhaust  produced  from  the  incomplete  combustion  of  the 
charges,  when  the  motor  runs  after  spark  is  turned  off.  A  knock  produced 

193 


by  mechanical  looseness  is  of  a  less  sharp  nature,  but  louder,  and  shakes 
the  car  more  noticeably.  If  mechanical  looseness  in  the  engine  is  the 
cause,  the  engine  will  stop  when  the  spark  is  turned  off,  and  will  be  found 
to  crank  easily,  but  if  the  cause  is  overheating  of  the  motor  or  carbon 
deposits  the  engine  will  run  after  the  switch  is  opened. 
CAUSE  OF  OVERHEATING. 

If  the  cylinders  are  found  to  be  more  than  normally  hot  and  the  pistons 
move  with  .difficulty  and  squeak  when  the  engine  is  cranked,  the  trouble  is 
probably  lack  of  cylinder  lubrication,  while,  if  the  cylinders  are  very  hot 
and  the  radiator  is  comparatively  cool,  the  difficulty  is  presumably  one  of 
lack  of  water  or  of  defective  circulation.  If,  when  the  radiator  drain  cock 
is  opened,  little  or  no  water  flows  from  it,  the  former  cause  is  to  be  sus- 
pected, otherwise  the  latter,  in  which  event  the  pump  and  piping  will 
require  inspection.  A  loosened  connecting  rod,  if  there  is  the  slightest 
chance  that  it  may  free  itself  from  the  pin,  is  a  matter  which  must  be 
immediately  rectified,  as  otherwise  it  may  cause  the  destruction  of  the 
motor.  A  hot  engine,  if  attended  to  at  once  and  allowed  to  cool  gradually, 
will  probably  not  be  seriously  injured  by  the  experience.  The  copious 
feeding  of  oil  to  the  heated  parts  and  a  very  cautious  supply  of  cold  water 
to  the  engine  jackets,  so  long  as  they  are  intensely  hot,  are  advisable. 
SQUEAKING  NOISES. 

Very  often  a  squeaking  sound  proceeding  from  the  engine  gives  timely 
warning  of  a  failure  of  piston  lubrication  and  enables  the  oil  supply  to  be 
renewed  before  the  cylinders  have  become  overheated.  The  driver's  ears 
should  be  alive  to  squeaking  sounds  proceeding  from  any  part  of  the  car, 
as  they  are  indicative  of  faulty  lubrication.  A  choked  muffler  or  a  slightly 
loose  exhaust  pipe  gasket  may,  however,  .give  rise  to  a  wheezing  or  gasping 
sound,  which  sometimes  gives  the  operator  a  fruitless  search  for  some  dry 
bearing,  while  in  reality  none  such  exists. 

GRATING  SOUNDS. 

An  unusual  grating  or  crunching  sound  arising  from  any  part  of  the  car 
should  immediately  lead  the  operator  to  stop  the  vehicle  and  throw  off  the 
spark,  in  order  that  the  breakage  which  may  have  taken  place  shall  extend 
no  farther  than  need  be.  Such  a  warning  may  indicate  a  stripped  gear  in 
the  change  speed  device,  trouble  in  the  differential,  in  the  drive  shaft  or  the 
universal  joints.  Prompt  action  may  limit  the  destruction  as  compared  to 
what  it  might  amount  to  if  the  car  and  engine  were  not  immediately 
brought  to  rest.  Unusual  rattling  sounds  usually  denote  that  something 
is  loose  about  the  running  gear  or  body  of  the  car,  and  should  be  heeded 
at  once.  A  sudden  snap,  occurring  when  traveling  rough  roads  or  passing 
over  a  "bump,"  is  likely  to  have  been  caused  by  the  fracture  of  a  spring 
leaf.  Its  cause  should  be  ascertained,  and,  if  a  spring  has  seriously  given 
way,  it  will  be  policy  to  proceed  very  slowly  until  a  repair  shop  can  be 
reached.  In  the  case  of  a  chain  driven  car  sudden  snapping  sounds  from 
the  rear  of  the  vehicle  may  indicate  the  faulty  action  of  the  chains,  probably 
caused  by  their  having  worn  out  of  pitch,  thus  allowing  the  links  to  ride 
the  sprocket  teeth  and  suddenly  snap  into  place.  A  broken  chain  may  be 
the  penalty  for  a  failure  to  act  upon  the  information  thus  conveyed. 

An  unusual  humming  or  grinding  sound  of  definite  pitch  may  be  taken  as 
evidence  that  there  are  gears  which  are  not  receiving  their  usual  supply 

194 


of  lubricant.  Every  motor  car  driver  should  keep  a  close  watch  of  his 
lubricator  sight  feeds.  If  oil  drops  can  be  seen  passing  he  knows  that  oil 
is  at  least  leaving  the  tank  and  going  to  come  of  the  bearings,  although  he 
cannot  be  sure  from  this  indication  alone  that  all  is  right  in  the  lubrication 
system. 

The  condition  of  the  tires  is  a  matter  about  which  the  operator  should 
frequently  take  notice.  If  they  are  allowed  to  run  flat  for  any  considera- 
ble distance  the  results  will  prove  expensive  in  both  lost  time  and 
wasted  money.  As  a  rule,  it  is  not  very  easy  for  the  driver  to  see  the 
points  of  road  contact  of  the  rear  tires  nor  of  the  front  tire  farthest 
from  him.  An  occasional  inquiry  of  the  other  occupants  of  the  car 
should  set  at  rest  the  question  of  the  state  of  the  tires. 
SIGNS  OF  DEFLATED  TIRES. 

A  deflated  rear  tire,  especially  if  there  be  much  weight  toward  the 
rear  of  the  car,  often  gives  a  peculiar  "feel"  to  the  steering,  as  if  the 
car  were  traveling  a  greasy  road.  The  rear  of  the  car  swings  about 
abnormally,  as  if  there  were  a  slight  rear  skidding  tendency.  When  an 
operator  feels  this  sensation,  when  running  on  a  good  dry  road,  he 
should  immediately  think  of  his  rear  tires.  Of  course,  a  deflated  tire 
causes  unusual  sharp  jars  to  be  transmitted  to  the  portion  of  the  car 
over  it,  and  the  mud  guard  and  other  attachments  in  its  vicinity  shake 
and  rattle  more  than  usual  when  the  wheel  is  running  on  its  rim  with 
tire  deflated.  These  signs  may,  however,  pass  unnoticed  when  a  car 
is  proceeding  at  a  moderate  pace  over  perfect  roads. 

A  deflated  front  tire  will  usually  make  itself  known  to  the  operator 
by  the  excessive  jar  which  is  transmitted  to  the  car  body,  and  by  the 
"crankiness"  of  the  steering  which  it  causes.  The  car  tends  to  swerve  to 
the  side  upon  which  the  injured  tire  is  located.  Signs  of  tire  trouble 
should  be  instantly  heeded,  as  there  is  not  only  the  certainty  of  dam- 
aging the  inner  tube  and  shoe  beyond  repair,  but  the  danger  of  serious 
loss  of  control  of  the  car  if  high  speeds  are  indulged  in. 
BRAKE  TESTS. 

Every  time  that  either  brake  is  applied  should  serve  the  operator  as 
a  rough  test  of  the  efficacy  of  these  all  important  parts  of  the  car.  In 
case  either  brake  shows  any  lack  of  holding  power  or  fails  in  any  degree 
to  produce  its  usual  effect,  there  is  cause  for  an  investigation  and  per- 
haps a  readjustment.  In  touring  mountainous  districts  the  operator's 
mind  should  be  specially  concerned  with  the  condition  of  his  brakes. 
It  seems  rather  unnecessary  to  remind  motor  car  operators  that  the 
brakes  should  not  accidentally  be  left  set  and  the  car  run.  The  coast- 
ing powers  of  the  car  are  among  the  matters  which  should  be  noted 
by  the  wideawake  operator  in  the  regular  operation  of  his  car,  and  if 
the  vehicle  coasts  sluggishly,  as  compared  with  its  wont,  there  is  probably 
some  unusual  friction  acting  at  some  point  of  the  mechanism  other  than 
in  the  engine,  which  is  uselessly  absorbing  power,  and  perhaps  destroying 
some  bearing. 

When  a  car  is  coasting  the  motor  is  usually  slowed  down  by  throttle 
and  late  spark  to  its  minimum  running  speed.  If  it  should  happen  to 
stop  when  so  controlled  this  may  be  taken  by  the  operator  as  a  sign 
that  something  is  wrong.  The  ignition  may  be  weak,  the  carburetor 

195 


working  badly,  or  an  engine  bearing  may  be  heating  and  thus  in  danger 
of  melting  out  its  babbitt.     The  latter  difficulty  will,  of  course,  be  sus- 
pected if  the  engine  turns  hard  when  it  is  cranked. 
CLUTCH  ADJUSTMENT. 

As  with  the  brakes,  the  clutches  are  also  tested  as  to  their  holding 
power  whenever  they  are  applied.  If  the  car  has  a  planetary  change 
speed  gear,  any  failure  of  the  car  and  engine  promptly  to  come  to 
corresponding  speeds  when  a  clutch  is  thrown  in  indicates  a  weak  clutch 
adjustment,  which  should  be  remedied  at  the  first  stop.  A  too  fierce 
engagement  of  the  leather  lined  clutch,  used  with  a  sliding  gear  com- 
bination, may  act  as  a  reminder  that  the  band  needs  treatment  with 
castor  oil. 

If  a  car  is  provided  with  a  reliable  gradometer  the  watching  of  this 
instrument  during  hill  climbing  may  convey  interesting  evidence  to  the 
operator  as  to  whether  things  are  or  are  not  as  they  should  be.  An 
operator  very  soon  comes  to  know  almost  exactly  how  severe  a  grade 
the  car  may  be  expected  to  climb  upon  a  certain  gear,  with  a  known 
throttle  and  spark  position — the  condition  of  the  road  surface  and  speed 
of  the  vehicle  being  considered.  If  one  finds  that  grades  which  have 
heretofore  been  easily  ascended  on  the  high  gear  with  a  certain  throttle 
opening  require  the  expenditure  of  a  much  greater  amount  of  gas,  or 
recourse  to  a  lower  gear,  it  is  likely  that  the  ignition  is  weak  or  has 
failed  in  one  cylinder;  that  there  is  some  frictional  drag  acting  on  the 
car  or  some  other  defect  equally  worthy  of  investigation  at  the  next  stop 
or  before. 

INSPECTIONS  DURING  STOPS. 

When  a  stop  is  being  made,  the  operator  usually  has  a  little  time  at 
his  disposal  for  making,  at  least,  a  cursory  inspection  of  the  car.  If 
the  motor  does  not  stop  promptly  when  the  spark  is  thrown  off,  the 
engine  cooling  and  lubrication  systems  may  well  be  examined.  Among 
the  matters  which  may  warrant  the  operator's  attention  are  the  fol- 
lowing: The  motor  may  be  cranked  over  to  see  that  it  turns  with 
perfect  freedom,  so  far  as  friction  is  concerned,  but  shows  the  usual 
degree  of  compression  in  each  cylinder.  If  there  is  friction,  faulty  lubri- 
cation is  doubtless  the  cause;  if  lack  of  compression,  the  valve  action 
should  be  closely  scrutinized. 

It  is  well  to  take  a  careful  look  under  the  car  to  see  that  there  is 
no  dripping  of  gasoline  or  water.  If  the  carburetor  drips  when  it  has 
not  recently  been  primed  there  is  a  presumption  that  the  float  or  its 
attachments  are  in  trouble.  The  draw-off  plug  at  the  bottom  of  the 
carburetor  float  chamber  should  be  seen  to  be  tight.  Many  a  car  has 
been  stalled  upon  the  road  on  account  of  a  total  loss  of  fuel  through 
the  accidental  opening  of  this  tap.  No  dripping  of  gasoline,  from  any 
part  of  the  piping  or  elsewhere,  should  be  tolerated  for  a  moment,  on 
account  of  the  fire  hazard  involved.  If  any  unusual  escape  of  water  from 
the  radiator,  its  draw-off  cock,  the  pump  or  piping  is  detected,  an  inves- 
tigation should  follow.  A  slight  water  leak  may  be  borne  with  until 
a  more  convenient  opportunity  presents  for  stopping  it.  Many  an  over- 
heated engine  has  resulted  from  the  accidental  opening  of  the  water  draw- 
off.  The  oil  plugs  in  the  bottom  of  the  crank  and  gear  case  should 

196 


be  proven  to  be  tight,  as  serious  damage  may  result  from  the  escape 
of  the  lubricant  incident  upon  the  loss  of  the  plugs. 

All  screw  grease  cups  should  be  screwed  down  a  little  when  a  stop 
affords  one  the  opportunity. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  examine  the  tires  as  to  their  proper 
degree  of  inflation  and  to  scrutinize  the  treads  for  any  sharp  objects  which 
might  later  cause  a  puncture.  No  one  who  has  the  safety  of  his  passengers 
and  himself  at  heart  will  fail  to  give  the  steering  gear  at  least  a  cursory 
examination  when  a  stop  is  made,  and  if  there  are  any  nuts  in  any  part 
of  the  car  which,  in  the  past,  have  shown  an  evil  tendency  to  back  off, 
one  may  well  apply  the  wrench  to  them. 

If  the  car  is  stopped  on  nearly  level  ground  it  is  no  harm  to  push 
it  backward  and  forward  a  few  feet  by  hand,  in  order  to  make  sure 
that  it  moves  with  its  customary  freedom.  This  is  a  very  simple  and 
easy  test  to  make  and  not  seldom  proves  worth  while. 

It  is  surprising  how  often,  even  at  this  late  date,  motor  car  drivers 
run  out  of  gasoline  through  sheer  carelessness.  Especially  when  touring 
through  an  unfamiliar  territory  therg  is  no  harm  in  taking  on  gasoline 
at  stops  where  it  is  known  that  it  is  obtainable,  even  though  only  a  few 
gallons  is  required  to  fill  the  tank.  It  may  be  further  than  one  expects 
to  the  next  fuel  supply  station,  and  it  is  always  desirable  to  keep  as  full 
a  tank  as  possible  in  case  of  need.  It  will,  furthermore,  never  be  amiss 
to  look  to  the  condition  of  the  water  supply  when  the  car  is  stopped,  as 
by  so  doing  a  special  stoppage  for  water  may  be  obviated. 


Hints  on   the   Driving  of  a  Gasoline  Car. 

(ALBERT  L.  CLOUGH.) 

The  operation  of  a  gasoline  car  is  a  simple  and  easily  acquired  art 
and  one  which  is  a  constant  source  of  pleasure  to  everyone  who  prac- 
tices it.  While  experience  is  the  only  effective  teacher,  there  are  a  few 
suggestions  which  may  prove  of  assistance  in  practice.  One  thing  about 
the  gasoline  car  which  is  in  its  favor  is  its  inherent  safety,  and  wherever 
there  has  remained  a  possibility  of  mishandling  with  serious  results  to 
the  mechanism  or  occupants  infallible  automatic  safeguards  are  generally 
provided.  Excluding  the  possibilities  of  misguiding  or  failures  to  control 
the  speed — dangers  which  are  common  to  all  vehicles — there  is  hardly  a 
possibility  of  disaster  to  the  passengers  or  mechanism  of  a  good  gaso- 
line car. 

In  starting  the  engine  of  a  gasoline  car  the  spark  timer  should  be 
set  to  give  a  late  ignition,  the  throttle  opened  only  slightly 'and  the  carbu- 
retor primed,  the  brake  should  be  set  and  the  gears  out  of  mesh.  One 
should  hold  the  crank  in  such  a  manner  that  no  bodily  injury  is  possible, 
even  if  the  motor  back  fires.  The  left  hand  should  usually  be  used  and 
the  crank  pulled  upward,  never  pushed  down.  In  starting  a  four  or  six 
cylinder  engine,  cranking  will  only  occasionally  be  necessary.  Ordinarily, 
the  motor  will  start,  if  warm,  as  soon  as  the  switch  is  thrown  in  and  the 
spark  advance  lever  manipulated  slightly.  If  it  does  not  happen  to  start 
in  this  manner  a  fraction  of  a  turn  of  the  crank  will  usually  set  it  in  motion. 

197 


Some  machines  are  provided  with  a  mechanism  which  prevents  the  attach- 
ing of  the  starting  crank  unless  the  spark  is  set  in  its  late  position. 

A  good  method  is  to  crank  the  motor  over  a  turn  or  two,  after  priming 
the  carburetor,  with  the  spark  off  and  then  to  throw  on  the  switch,  when 
starting  will  almost  infallibly  occur. 

The  difficulty  experienced  in  starting  a  motor  in  very  cold  weather 
will  be  adverted  to  in  the  chapter  on  "Winter  Use  of  Automobiles." 

Once  in  a  while  it  is  found  necessary  to  adjust  the  gasoline  mixture 
furnished  by  the  carburetor,  on  account  of  a  difference  in  the  quality  of 
the  fuel  used  or  because  of  atmospheric  changes,  and  instructions  for  so 
doing  have  been  given  under  the  head  of  "Carburation."  Modern  car- 
buretors require  very  infrequent  adjustment,  and  ordinarily  had  much 
better  be  left  alone.  In  taking  in  gasoline  on  the  road  its  freedom 
from  foreign  substances,  such  as  water,  lint  and  dirt,  is  of  much  greater 
importance  than  its  specific  gravity,  as  modern  carburetors  work  well 
with  any  of  the  grades  in  commercial  use.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  fill 
the  tank  whenever  convenient,  even  though  it  is  by  no  means  empty,  rather 
than  to  allow  the  supply  to  run  low  .and  to  depend  upon  the  reaching  of  a 
certain  point  for  its  complete  replenishment.  This  is  equally  true  of  the 
water  supply,  especially  with  machines  which  consume  it  rapidly. 

Every  operator  has  his  own  habits  of  driving,  developed  through 
experience,  but  some  general  suggestions  may  profitably  be  followed. 
When  starting  the  car  from  rest  it  is  well  to  make  sure  that  the  brakes 
are  released  and  that  a  low  gear  is  engaged.  The  car  should  never  be 
started  upon  a  gear  so  high  that  the  engine  shows  labor  and  nearly  stops, 
and,  with  a  clutch  capable  of  being  engaged  gently  and  gradually,  full 
advantage  should  be  taken  of  this  quality,  as  the  engine,  in  that  case,  does 
not  need  to  be  speeded  so  violently  to  prevent  its  stalling.  With  a  sudden 
acting  or  "fierce"  clutch  it  is  often  practically  impossible  to  "pick  up"  the 
load  gradually,  and  the  lowest  gear  should  invariably  be  used  in  starting. 
It  is  a  general  principle  that  when  gears  are  being  changed  the  engine 
should  at  no  time  be  speeded  more  than  necessary.  Engines  which  are 
controlled  by  governors  are  somewhat  protected  from  the  strains  due 
to  racing,  as  also  are  those  which  have  spring  returned  throttles.  The 
stresses  imposed  upon  an  engine  by  allowing  it  to  race  are  very  serious, 
and  their  avoidance  should  become  habitual.  They  are  a  common  cause 
of  breakage  of  the  moving  parts. 

As  motors  become  more  and  more  flexible  in  their  operation,  and 
more  amenable  to  power  control  by  throttle  and  spark,  it  is  possible  to 
control  the  speed  of  the  car  almost  entirely  by  means  of  the  engine  speed, 
thus  rendering  the  changing  of  gears,  with  its  attendant  bother  and  wear, 
only  occassionally  necessary.  One  should  learn  to  control  the  car  by 
means  of  the  engine  as  far  as  possible,  using  the  throttle  and  spark  timer 
freely  and  judiciously.  Touring  car  engines,  many  of  which  have  means 
of  setting  the  governor  at  any  required  speed,  by  means  of  a  lever  on 
the  hand  wheel,  are  capable  of  controlling  the  car  at  almost  any  desired 
rate  without  frequent  changes  of  gear.  When  it  is  desired  to  reduce  the 
speed  on  easy  going  one  should  slow  down  the  engine  by  the  throttle,  or 
governor  adjustment  and  a  late  spark,  rather  than  descend  to  a  lower 
gear;  but,  of  course,  this  should  not  be  carried  too  far  on  hard  traveling, 

198 


as  the  engine  will  then  show  evidences  of  labor  at  very  low  speeds. 
Rather  than  have  this  occur  the  next  lower  gear  should  be  engaged.  It 
is  an  obvious  advantage  to  run  as  much  as  possible  upon  the  highest  gear 
which  will  do  the  work  without  overloading  the  engine,  as  there  will  then 
be  decreased  loss  and  wear  in  the  change  speed  gear,  less  wear  in  all 
parts  of  the  engine  due  to  its  smaller  number  of  revolutions  per  unit  of 
distance,  less  noise  and  a  less  consumption  of  gasoline,  oil  and  ignition 
current.  A  well  powered  vehicle,  properly  geared,  should  be  able  to  run 
on  the  direct  drive,  without  change  of  gear  and  entirely  under  engine 
control,  nearly  95  per  cent,  of  the  time  when  used  over  any  but  severe 
road  conditions.  Everyone  should  learn  to  obtain  from  his  engine  all  that 
there  is  in  it,  and  rely  as  little  as  possible  upon  gear  changes. 

When,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  change  gears — to  pass  from  a  high 
to  a  low  gear,  for  instance — one  should  try  to  regulate  matters  so  that 
engine  and  car  are  moving  nearly  at  corresponding  rates  before  it  is 
attempted  to  bring  the  new  set  of  gears  into  mesh,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  severe  strains  and  shocks  which  otherwise  are  caused.  When  a 
gear  is  engaged  the  car  should  be  moving  at  a  speed  at  which  the  con- 
templated gear  would  actually  carry  it  at  the  speed  at  which  the  engine 
is  then  moving.  Of  course,  one  does  not  need  to  be  too  particular  about 
this.  •> 

In  passing  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  gear  it  is,  of  course,  necessary  to 
speed  the  engine  quite  a  little  by  means  of  the  accelerator  or  ordinary 
throttle,  in  order  to  store  enough  energy  in  the  increased  speed  of  rota- 
tion of  the  flywheel  to  furnish  the  work  necessary  to  accelerate  the  car 
up  to  its  new  speed. 

In  most  cases  it  is  desirable  to  change  gears  as  quickly  and  deftly 
as  possible,  but  never  nervously.  When  climbing  a  severe  hill  it  is  desira- 
ble to  ascend  as  far  as  possible  on  a  high  gear  by  the  judicious  use  of 
throttle  and  spark,  but  never  to  "hang  on"  so  long  that  the  engine  labors 
seriously  or  is  in  danger  of  stopping.  When  it  finally  becomes  necessary 
to  change  to  a  lower  gear,  advantage  should  be  taken  of  the  momentum 
possessed  by  the  vehicle,  and  in  order  to  do  so  the  change  should  be  made 
with  as  little  delay  as  possible  and  before  the  vehicle  has  time  to  slow 
down. 

The  gasoline  engine  having  no  reserve  of  power  to  draw  upon,  as 
does  the  steamer  or  electric,  its  momentum  must  be  carefully  conserved. 
When  approaching  hills  the  power  should  be  increased  in  ample  time  to 
give  good  speed  when  the  grade  is  reached,  and  full  power  should  be 
applied  on  the  ascent,  to  prevent  the  vehicle's  slowing  down  to  a  point 
where  a  gear  change  will  become  necessary.  Steep  hills,  if  short,  may 
be  rushed  successfully,  if  attacked  in  time  and  a  high  speed  average 
maintained  over  hard  roads,  without  indulging  in  dangerous  speeds  on 
the  level  or  on  descents.  With  large  motors  of  four  or  six  cylinders 
there  is,  of  course,  less  necessity  for  this  "rushing"  than  with  one  and 
two  cylinder  engines. 

These  are  by  no  means  all  the  "tricks  of  the  trade"  which  enable  one 
to  operate  speedily  and  comfortably  and  with  due  regard  for  the  car. 

The  use  of  the  spark  timer  is  something  which  not  everyone  under- 
stands. The  great  majority  of  cars  have  a  lever  mounted  upon  the  steer- 

199 


ing  wheel  for  this  purpose.  It  is  useful  in  retarding  the  ignition  at 
starting,  and  for  slowing  down  the  engine  when  standing  below  the 
point  obtained  by  throttling  alone,  both  of  which  results  are  secured  by 
delaying  the  spark.  A  position  of  the  spark  lever  may  be  found  which 
gives  good  average  results  on  varying  throttle  openings  and  through  quite 
a  range  of  speed,  and  may  not  require  change  for  long  distances.  Experi- 
ence will  teach  one  where  this  position  is  to  be  found.  When  it  is  desired 
to  secure  a  high  rate  of  speed  the  spark  should  be  advanced — made  earlier, 
but  not  too  suddenly,  as  then  severe  strains  are  imposed  on  the  moving 
parts.  If  a  grade  is  to  be  attacked  the  spark  may  be  advanced,  with  full 
throttle,  to  give  the  car  a  high  momentum,  but  as  the  engine  slows  down 
to  a  low  rate  of  speed  on  the  steep  slope  it  may  begin  to  "knock,"  when 
the  ignition  must  be  retarded  enough  to  cause  this  symptom  to  disappear. 
If  a  magneto  is  used  very  little  change  of  spark  time  is  required.  When 
the  engine  is  slowed  down  nearly  to  the  limit,  under  open  throttle,  a  slight 
retard  may  be  necessary  and  a  slight  advance  from  the  usual  running 
position  may  be  required  during  "speeding." 

CONTROL   OF   CAR   SPEED 

by  means  of  the  engine  may  be  made  so  perfect  that  the  use  of  brakes 
and  the  attendant  throwing  in  and  out  of  clutches  may  be  minimized. 
When  approaching  water  bars  or  other  rough  places  in  the  road  the  car 
may  be  brought  to  a  safe  speed  by  the  engine  alone  and  without  brake 
application,  unless  the  conditions  are  very  bad  or  appear  suddenly,  and 
when  approaching  any  portion  of  the  road  which  looks  slippery  and  where 
skidding  might  occur  the  engine  speed  may  well  be  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum as  well  as  when  a  stop  is  to  be  made.  There  is  no  object  in  rushing 
up  to  the  stopping  place  and  applying  the  brakes  when  at  high  speed,  as 
the  tires  are  caused  to  slip,  are  severely  worn  and  badly  strained,  and 
other  portions  of  the  mechanism  suffer  as  well.  It  is  more  essential, 
from  considerations  of  safety,  to  be  able  to  stop  a  car  promptly  than 
it  is  to  be  able  to  start  it,  and  the  cautious  operator,  like  the  careful 
locomotive  engineer,  will  try  his  brakes  to  see  that  they  are  dependable. 
When  a  steep  descent  is  about  to  be  reached  the  brakes  should  be  tested 
to  see  that  they  are  working  well  and  to  give  time  if  this  is  not  the 
case  to  control  the  car  otherwise.  It  should  always  be  remembered  that 
the  vehicle  may  also  be  controlled  in  event  of  brake  failure  by  engaging 
the  lowest  gear  and  slowing  down  the  engine  by  throttle  and  spark  for 
the  purpose  of  holding  back  the  car.  If  this  is  not  sufficient  the  spark 
may  be  cut  off,  and  no  car  can  show  any  speed  on  the  lowest  gear  even 
on  the  steepest  grade  when  this  has  been  done.  If  slippery  places  are 
encountered  in  the  road  and  a  tendency  to  skid  is  manifested,  one  should 
apply  the  brakes  with  caution.  As  soon  as  possible  get  the  car  under 
engine  control  on  its  lowest  speed. 

Safety  in  operation  rather  than  speed  should  be  the  prime  considera- 
tion in  automobile  driving,  and  every  operator  can  assist  in  placing  the 
reputation  of  the  motor  car  in  this  respect  upon  a  firm  foundation. 

As  all  gasoline  cars  create  a  certain  amount  of  noise,  as  long  as  the 
engine  is  running,  whether  or  not  the  vehicle  is  in  motion,  the  operator 
is  deprived,  in  a  degree,  of  the  sense  of  hearing,  so  far  as  its  value  in 
warning  him  of  danger  is  concerned.  He  has  to  rely  almost  exclusively 


upon  his  sense  of  sight.  This  fact  demands  an  especial  amount  of  visual 
alertness  on  his  part.  When  approaching  an  intersecting  street,  the  view 
of  which  is  cut  off  by  buildings  or  otherwise,  he  must  have  his  car  under 
perfect  control,  as  he  will  not  be  warned  by  the  noise  of  intersecting 
traffic  so  effectually,  at  least,  as  is  the  horse  driver.  In  crossing  a  street 
car  track,  at  an  angle,  the  only  safe  course  is  to  take  a  backward  as  well 
as  a  forward  look  for  approaching  cars.  Unguarded  steam  railroad  cross- 
ings are  a  menace  to  the  public  at  large,  and  especially  so  to  the  auto- 
mobilist,  as  the  sound  of  an  approaching  train  will  not  generally  be  audible 
above  the  hum  of  the  motor.  Unless  the  track  is  visible  for  a  considerable 
distance  in  both  directions,  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  crossing.  In 
fact,  almost  all  dangers  which  in  other  situations  appeal  to  one  through 
the  ear  must,  in  motor  driving,  be  avoided  by  the  watchfulness  of  the 
eye.  When  driving  in  districts  where  the  automobile  is  not  yet  in  common 
use  the  problem  of  meeting  and  passing  horses  becomes  a  serious  matter, 
and  results  in  the  unpleasurable  consumption  of  much  nervous  tissue  on 
.  the  part  of  all  concerned.  One  rule  bearing  upon  this  phase  of  auto- 
mobiling  which  may  always  be  profitably  observed  is  this :  Never  allow 
yourself  to  infringe  the  rules  of  the  road  or  the  prevailing  law  or  ordi- 
nance in  regard  to  stopping  on  request  or  as  to  speed.  It  is  of  the  greatest 
advantage  in  case  of  trouble  to  feel  that  you  were  well  within  your  rights. 

It  appears  to  be  not  so  much  the  noise  of  the  motor  car  that  frightens 
the  horse  as  its  "horselessness."  In  the  dim  equine  intellect  the  motor 
car  doubtless  savors  of  the  supernatural,  and  the  horse's  fear  is  corre- 
spondingly unreasonable  and  uncontrollable.  When  passing  a  restive 
animal  the  voice  is  very  effective  as  a  quieting  agency.  Such  expressions 
as  "Whoa  boy,"  "Easy,  now,"  "It  won't  hurt  you,"  said  in  a  reassuring 
tone,  seem  to  have  great  influence,  and  evidently  relieve  the  situation  of 
its  supernatural  element,  as  judged  from  the  equine  standpoint. 

Experience  has  shown  that  ordinarily  the  best  manner  in  which  to  pass 
a  standing  horse,  headed  in  the  same  direction  as  the  car,  is  to  throw  in 
the  quietest  gear,  cross  to  the  extreme  further  side  of  the  road,  and  drive 
by  about  as  quickly  as  the  law  allows,  but  never  faster.  The  machine  is 
soon  past  the  animal  and  he  will  seldom  start  to  follow  the  cause  of  his 
fright  and  rarely  will  back,  because  the  machine  and  its  terrors  are  rapidly 
drawing  away  from  him. 

Passing  a  standing  horse  headed  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  animal 
has  a  full  opportunity  to  see  the  car  approach  and  work  up  his  nervous 
tension,  and  some  more  care  is  necessary.  The  quietest  gear  should  be 
retained,  if  possible,  and  the  car  should  be  slowed  down  to  its  minimum — in 
every  instance  below  the  legal  limit,  and  one  should  approach  on  the 
extreme  opposite  side  of  the  road,  ready  to  throw  out  the  clutch  and  cut 
off  the  spark  at  the  least  exhibition  of  dangerous  disquietude. 

In  meeting  a  horse  being  driven  by  a  capable  driver,  it  is  perfectly  legiti- 
mate to  pursue  your  regular  legal  pace,  until  some  sign  of  fright  is  noted, 
when  the  speed  should  be  decreased  and  the  car  stopped  if  necessary.  The 
engine  may  be  shut  down  if  it  seems  needful,  but  if  it  is  possible  to  get  by 
without  taking  too  great  chances,  it  is  almost  always  advantageous.  When 
the  car  is  past  the  horse,  it  may  be  speeded  up  in  order  to  get  out  of  hear- 
ing as  soon  as  possible.  Any  signal  to  stop  on  the  part  of  the  driver 


should  be  obeyed  as  quickly  as  the  brakes  permit.  When  horses  are  met 
driven  by  ladies  or  children,  and  there  are  the  slightest  indications  of 
freight,  the  machine  had  best  be  brought  to  a  full  stop,  and  one  should 
wait,  with  hand  on  the  ignition  switch,  ready  to  slop  the  engine  instantly, 
unless  the  animal  is  under  full  control. 

Under  all  circumstances  the  automobile  operator  should  speak  to  any 
horse  which  appears  frightened.  Such  action  on  his  part,  in  conjunction 
with  the  efforts  of  the  driver,  generally  proves  effectual. 

Sometimes,  even  when  the  machine  is  stopped  and  the  engine  motionless, 
a  horse  cannot  be  induced  to  pass  the  car.  There  is  only  one  thing  to  do  in 
this  case,  and  that  is  for  the  automobilist  to  lead  him  by.  This  gives  one 
an  opportunity  to  say  a  few  pleasant  words  to  the  occupants  of  the  horse 
carriage  and  perhaps  relieve  the  situation. 

Jt  is  very  unpleasant  to  meet  or  pass  teams  on  a  bridge  or  on  parts  of 
the  road  having  a  precipitous  declivity  on  one  side,  guarded  perhaps  only  by 
a  few  frail  fence  rails.  The  possibilities  of  a  runaway,  under  these  circum- 
stances, should  be  sufficient  to  demand  extra  care  on  the  part  of  the  oper- 
ator. Such  meetings  should  be  avoided,  whenever  possible,  even  if  a  slight 
delay  is  incurred.  Covered  bridges,  within  which  the  state  of  the  traffic 
is  not  visible,  should  be  approached  very  circumspectly. 

Country  roads  are  often  very  narrow,  densely  wooded  on  both  sides  and 
have  very  sharp  curves.  These  curves  should  be  rounded  with  the  machine 
under  perfect  control  and  the  horn  should  be  sounded  well  in  advance. 
Night  driving  over  roads  of  this  description  is  more  picturesque  and 
exciting  than  safe  and  restful.  One  interesting  fact  is  that  horses  will 
hardly  ever  start  to  run  away  when  confronted  by  the  acetylene  search- 
light of  a  motor  car.  The  horse  is  evidently  completely  dazed  and  some- 
what stupefied  and  ordinarily  will  not  move.  How  dazzling  the  huge  acety- 
lene projectors  of  modern  cars  are  to  the  occupants  of  horse-drawn 
vehicles  one  of  the  "automobile  fraternity"  can  probably  but  dimly  imagine. 
There  is  such  a  thing  as  carrying  too  much  light  on  a  machine  so  far  as 
the  comfort  of  traffic  in  general  is  concerned. 

The  automobile  horn,  too,  may  be  perverted  from  a  valuable  instrument 
of  warning  to  an  agency  of  offense.  It  is  intended  to  notify  the  drivers 
of  other  vehicles  of  the  machine's  approach,  and  not  as  an  advertisement  to 
the  community  at  large  that  one  has  a  motor  car.  The  excessive  use  of  the 
horn  has  done  more  to  create  a  feeling  adverse  to  automobiles  than  almost 
any  other  feature  of  the  movement.  The  horn  must,  of  course,  be  used 
in  accordance  with  the  law,  but  it  is  entirely  unnecessary  to  go  "tooting" 
through  the  open  country  to  the  useless  annoyance  of  everyone  within 
earshot.  The  horn's  legitimate  use  is  to  notify  traffic  of  the  car's  approach 
wh'en  otherwise  it  would  be  unaware  of  the  fact.  When  about  to  pass  a 
team  going  "in  the  same  direction  it  becomes  really  necessary  to  warn  the 
driver  of  the  other  vehicle  by  sound  that  one  is  approaching,  as  the  sense 
of  sight  will  not  advise  him.  In  fact,  the  horn  is  only  intended  to  notify 
people  of  the  vehicle's  approach  who  would  not  be  likely  to  learn  of  it 
through  the  sense  of  sight. 

When  meeting  or  passing  street  cars  when  they  are  either  moving  or 
stopped,  the  automobilist  should  use  especial  care,  for  at  any  instant  a 
passenger  may  jump  from  the  running  board  of  a  moving  car  directly  in 


front  of  the  motor  vehicle.  The  noise  of  the  car  drowns  the  sound  of  the 
approaching  auto,  and  people  do  not  always  "look  before  they  leap." 
When  a  street  car  is  stopped  passengers  will  frequently  step  around  the 
end  of  the  car  directly  in  front  of  the  motor  vehicle,  the  car  having  cut  off 
the  view  of  the  approaching  auto.  Sometimes  a  person  will  make  a  frantic 
rush  for  a  trolley  car  which  is  stopped  and  place  himself  suddenly  in  the 
path  of  the  machine.  The  use  of  the  horn  is  very  advisable  in  passing 
trolleys,  and  they  should  be  given  as  wide  a  berth  as  possible. 

When  crossing  streets  the  view  of  which  is  obstructed  by  signboards 
or  street  or  building  operations,  great  care  should  be  exercised,  as  pedes- 
trians may  suddenly  place  themselves  in  the  path  of  the  car. 

The  operator  of  a  motor  car  who  always  occupies  the  driving  position 
and  has  the  support  of  the  steering  columns  seldom  realizes,  until  he  tries 
it,  the  discomfort  which  he  imposes  upon  the  occupants  of  the  harder 
riding  tonneau  seats,  in  passing  over  crossings  and  "thank-you-ma'ams"  at 
a  high  rate  of  speed.  A  few  rides  in  the  tonneau,  behind  a  speedy  operator, 
will  be  likely  to  make  him  more  considerate  in  this  feature  of  his  driving. 
In  turning  corners,  too,  the  tonneau  passengers  have  the  full  benefit  of  the 
slue  which  accompanies  high  speed,  under  these  conditions.  The  governor 
or  the  throttle  and  spark  control  of  every  car  ought  to  be  so  adjusted  as 
to  admit  of  low  speed  being  instantly  realized  when  passing  over  "bumps" 
or  turning  corners,  so  that  they  may  be  traversed  without  unnecessary 
discomfort,  and  usually  without  throwing  out  the  clutch  or  applying  the 
brake  except  on  down  grades. 

Very  few  people  fully  realize  how  large  a  part  of  the  breakages  and 
general  wear  and  tear  of  motor  cars  result  from  running  too  fast  over 
city  crossings  and  over  the  water  bars  and  "thank-you-ma'ams"  of  country 
thoroughfares.  Not  only  so,  but  the  greatest  element  of  discomfort  to 
the  passengers  arises  from  the  severe  bumps  originating  from  this  cause. 
When  a  bad  irregularity  in  the  road  is  encountered,  the  whole  weight 
of  the  car  and  its  occupants  comes  down  with  great  force  and  sudden- 
ness upon  the  running  gear,  and  then  rebounds  with  extreme  violence. 
Terrific  stresses  are  thus  imposed  upon  tires,  springs,  axles  and  steering 
pivots,  as  well  as  upon  the  supports  of  the  engine  and  change  speed 
gear.  There  is  hardly  a  part  of  the  machine  which  does  not  participate 
in  the  general  distress,  and  its  intensity  increases  very  rapidly  with  the 
speed  at  which  the  obstruction  is  met. 

ENGINE  CONTROL  VERSUS  GEAR  CONTROL. 

The  life  of  a  car  may  be  greatly  extended  and  its  derangements  mini- 
mized by  avoiding  these  stresses  through  careful  and  moderate  driving 
over  road  inequalities.  To  effect  this  constant  watchfulness  on  the  part 
of  the  driver  is  required,  and  such  adjustment  of  the  throttle  and  spark 
should  be  attained  as  to  enable  the  machine  to  be  slowed  down  to  a 
very  low  speed  by  the  control  of  the  motor,  without  the  necessity  of 
throwing  out  the  clutch,  and  generally  without  an  application  of  the 
brake  being  necessary.  There  is  no  objection  whatever  to  a  mild  applica- 
tion of  the  brake  when  the  engine  is  clutched  in  and  it  is  desired  to  slow 
down  the  speed  of  the  machine  more  than  it  can  be  done  with  the  throttle 
and  spark.  Putting  on  the  brake  under  these  conditions  amounts  simply 

203 


to  loading  the  engine  somewhat  more,  and  may  result  in  less  wear  and 
tear  than  that  occasioned  by  unclutching  and  clutching. 

One  soon  gets  to  know  just  how  bad  a  road  inequality  can  be  traversed 
at  a  certain  speed  with  merely  a  gentle  undulation  of  the  springs  result- 
ing, instead  of  a  violent  "throw"  being  the  consequence.  Of  course,  the 
engine  must  be  speeded  down  and  unclutched,  and  the  brakes  applied, 
when  very  bad  places  are  encountered,  and  if  these  operations  are  per- 
formed expertly  it  is  surprising  how  little  the  average  speed  is  reduced 
and  how  well  one  is  recompensed  for  the  sacrifice  in  increased  comfort 
and  decreased  liability  to  breakage. 

Quite  a  considerable  amount  of  fuel  may  be  saved  by  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  ability  of  the  car  to  coast  on  down  grades.  The  vehicle  may 
thus  be  allowed  to  run  free  on  all  slopes  upon  which  it  will  coast  at  a 
speed  greater  than  it  would  be  propelled  by  the  engine  running  at  its 
minimum  speed.  It  is  of  no  advantage  to  allow  it  to  coast  at  a  lower 
speed  than  this,  as  there  would  obviously  be  no  saving  in  fuel  and  the 
wear  and  tear  thus  imposed  upon  the  clutch  would  not  be  warranted. 
How  TO  COAST. 

When  about  to  coast  the  engine  should  be  unclutched,  the  lever  left 
in  the  neutral  position,  and  the  engine  slowed  down  by  throttle  and 
spark  to  the  lowest  speed  at  which  it  will  keep  running.  If  the  change 
speed  gear  is  of  the  sliding  type,  the  gears  may  be  thrown  entirely  out 
of  mesh,  or  in  the  neutral  position,  or  at  least  placed  in  mesh  for  the 
highest  speed,  so  that  the  velocity  of  the  gears  and  the  consequent  loss 
of  power  may  be  a  minimum.  In  coasting  one  should,  of  course,  have 
the  car  under  complete  brake  control.  When  a  very  long  coast  is  at 
hand  one  may  stop  the  engine  entirely,  thus  stopping  the  gasoline  con- 
sumption and  the  motor's  wear  and  tear,  and  giving  it  a  chance  to  cool 
off.  At  the  top  of  the  down  grade  the  switch  may  be  thrown  off  after 
the  engine  is  unclutched,  but  before  the  end  of  the  coast  is  reached,  and 
while  the  machine  still  possesses  good  headway,  the  switch  should  be 
closed  and  the  clutch  gently  thrown  in,  when  the  engine  will  be  started 
by  the  energy  of  the  vehicle's  motion.  In  starting  an  engine  by  means 
of  the  clutch,  the  highest  speed  must  be  used  and  never  one  of  the 
lower  gears,  as  the  stresses  imposed  upon  the  mechanism  in  the  latter 
case  would  be  too  severe. 

A  BRAKE  FAILURE  KINK. 

One  of  the  commonest  causes  of  accidents  to  motor  vehicles  has  been 
the  failure  of  the  brakes  to  hold  the  car  from  running  down  a  severe 
.hill  upon  which  the  engine  has  stalled.  When  this  occurs  while  climb- 
ing a  bad  grade,  the  tendency  is  for- the  car  to  run  down  the  slope  back- 
ward, and  this  is  a  very  embarrassing  if  not  a  dangerous  accident.  The 
brakes  of  modern  vehicles  are  now  very  generally  double  acting,  in  fact 
as  well  as  in  name,  and  this  accident  is  becoming  rather  rare.  Even 
now  some  misadjustment  might  conceivably  deprive  the  driver  of  the 
use  of  one  or  the  other  of  his  brakes  and  the  remaining  one  might  not 
hold  the  car  under  extreme  conditions.  One  should  always  remember 
that  if  the  brakes  fail  to  hold,  the  engine,  if  clutched  in, -on  the  lowest 
speed,  with  the  spark  cut  off,  will  almost  invariably  hold  the  car  motion- 
less if  the  compression  is  good  and  the  clutch  is  working  properly.  The 

204 


backward  tendency  of  the  car  will  almost  always  be  insufficient  to  over- 
come the  compression  of  the  engine  at  least  at  a  rate  sufficient  to  give 
the  car  more  than  the  very  slowest  motion. 

In  such  a  case  as  this,  the  rear  wheels  will  have  to  be  blocked  with 
stones  to  hold  the  car  when  a  fresh  start  is  to  be  made. 


Using  the  Car  as  a  Winch  for  Extricating  It. 

(J.   S.   CORBIN.) 

With  a  hundred  feet  of  three-quarter  inch  (diameter)  .rope,  and  a 
hand  axe,  it  ought  to  be  possible  to  extract  a  pretty  heavy  auto  from 
mud  hole,  side  ditch  or  bridgeless  culvert,  without  the  intervention  of  a 
"hay  motor"  and  the  sacrifice  of  three  dollar  bills. 

Select  some  stable  object,  as  a  sapling,  a  stone,  or  a  fence  corner  foun- 
dation, or  sharpen  and  drive  a  stake  into  the  side  bank  so  that  the  rope 
when  attached  will  draw  over  some  rounded  surface  of  ground.  Take 
from  the  fence  the  straightest  rail  obtainable.  Gather  sticks  and  stones 
to  block  up  one  end  of  the  rail  when  inserted  under  the  rear  axle, 
close  to  one  driving  wheel.  With  the  jack  one  should  always  have  set 
up  the  rear  end  of  the  rail  so  the  wheel  is  suspended,  or  at  least  much 
of  the  weight  of  the  machine  taken  off.  The  wheel  will  now  "skid" 
freely. 

Now,  "snub"  the  rope  around  the  projecting  hub  of  the  wheel,  holding 
the  loose  end  of  it  snugly  so  it  will  bind  on  the  hub  and  let  your  assist- 
ant turn  on  the  power  carefully.  The  rope  if  properly  arranged  will 
wind  on  and  off  and  pull  the  car  with  a  tremendous  force  in  whatever 
direction  you  may  have  planted  your  stake,  the  axle  sliding  along  the 
rail.  Repeat  if  this  does  not  take  you  out  of  your  difficulty.  The  other 
driver  will  be  helping  to  move  the  machine  as  it  is  resting  on  the  ground 
and  through  the  differential  is  dividing  the  pull  with  the  rope,  though 
taking  much  the  smaller  share  of  it,  of  course. 

This  reads  lengthily,  but  one  will  have  reached  the  turnpike  if  he 
tries  it,  long  before  the  farmer  with  rattling  rack  and  jingling  trace 
chains  comes  hurrying  over  the  hill  to  render  assistance. 

The  crafty  builder  of  motor  cars  should  prepare  his  rear  wheel 
hubs  to  suit  the  idea  here  given,  and  should  form  them  of  the  proper 
taper  to  allow  the  rope  to  "side  step"  as  fresh  portions  are  wound  on 
and  off.  Anyone  who  has  watched  the  warping  of  a  vessel  by  rope  and 
capstan  will  catch  the  idea  readily. 

A  piece  of  gaspipe  2  feet  long,  one  end  welded  down  to  a  point  and 
the  other  upset  and  welded  into  a  knob  or  head,  will  make  a  good  "stake" 
to  carry  along.  The  whole  outfit  need  not  weigh  over  a  dozen  pounds, 
not  counting  the  jack  which  everybody  touring  has  already. 


Care  and   Maintenance  of  Electric  Vehicles. 

(ALBERT  L.   CLOUGH.) 

The  care  required  by  an  electric  vehicle,  exclusive  of  that  demanded 
by  its  battery,  is  very  slight  as  compared  with  that  which  must  be  bestowed 

205 


upon  a  gasoline  or  steam  vehicle.  Nevertheless,  it,  like  every  other  mech- 
anism, requires  a  certain  amount  of  well  directed  attention  in  order  that 
it  may  be  maintained  in  perfect  condition.  The  time  and  attention  called 
for  by  a  vehicle  battery,  however,  in  charging  it  and  keeping  the  cells  in 
proper  working  order,  is  by  no  means  small,  and  represents  the  greater 
portion  of  the  total  labor  which  the  maintenance  of  an  electric  automobile 
involves.  A  few  points  relative  to  the  care  of  the  vehicle  itself  will  first  be 
enumerated,  and  then  the  matter  of  looking  after  the  battery  will  be 
spoken  of. 

Lubrication  of  moving  parts,  their  proper  adjustment  and  the  security 
of  all  holding  devices  are  matters  which  require  attention  in  the  electric 
vehicle  in  common  with  those  of  other  motive  powers. 

LUBRICATION  OF  BEARINGS. 

The  bearings  of  the  motor  armature  should  be  most  carefully  providec' 
with  lubrication,  as  their  undue  wear  may  cause  the  armature,  which  runs 
very  close  to  its  pole  pieces,  to  strike  the  latter  and  cause  injury  to  the 
armature  winding.  These  bearings  may  be  oiled  by  chain  or  ring  oilers, 
operating  in  oil  reservoirs  surrounding  the  bearings,  by  lubricant  absorbed 
in  waste  or  wicking,  held  in  oil  boxes  surrounding  the  bearings,  or  by  other 
means.  If  the  former  method  be  employed  the  reservoirs  should  be  kept 
properly  filled  with  good  dynamo  oil,  which  must  not  be  allowed  to  become 
dirty  or  spent  through  long  use.  In  case  the  latter  mode  of  lubrication  is 
used  the  absorbent  material  should  always  be  saturated  with  good,  rather 
light,  oil.  Whatever  system  of  oiling  is  provided,  it  should  be  frequently 
replenished  with  the  grade  of  lubricant  intended  to  be  supplied  to  it. 

CARE  OF  COMMUTATOR. 

As  the  voltage  used  is  very  low,  vehicle  motor  commutators  require  but 
very  infrequent  attention.  The  brush  tension  should  be  firm  and  fairly 
strong,  as  otherwise  there  may  be  a  jumping  of  the  brushes  at  high  motor 
speed,  with  sparking  effects  destructive  to  the  commutator  surface.  If  the 
commutator  has  a  polished,  bronze  colored  surface,  and  is  free  from  black- 
ening, nothing  need  be  done  to  it  unless  the  brushes  squeak,  when  the 
finger  wet  in  oil  may  be  rubbed  over  the  commutator  bars.  There  is  no 
harm,  however,  in  wiping  off  the  commutator  occasionally  with  a  piece  of 
fabric  which  is  free  from  loose  threads,  using  a  firm  pressure  upon  the 
bars  and  turning  the  motor  meanwhile  by  pushing  the  vehicle  by  hand.  If 
the  commutator  be  found  black  and  rough,  the  car  may  be  jacked  up  and 
the  motor  started.  A  piece  of  medium  grade  sandpaper  may  then  be  used 
to  polish  the  commutator  surface,  which  should  be  finished  with  a  piece 
of  dry  fabric  to  remove  the  abrasive  particles,  after  which  a  minute  quan- 
tity of  oil  may  be  supplied  as  described  above.  After  very  extensive  use 
the  commutator  may  become  so  unevenly  worn  as  to  require  to  be  trued 
up  in  a  lathe. 

The  cable  connections  to  the  motor  should  always  be  kept  tight  and  the 
insulation  of  the  cables  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  abraded.  If  the 
motor  is  of  such  construction  that  dust  may  gather  within  it  there  is  no 
objection  to  the  occasional  use  of  a  bellows  or  the  compressed  air  supply  of 
a  garage  to  blow  out  copper  and  carbon  particles  which  may  be  worn  off 
in  commutation  and  dust  particles  from  the  road. 

206 


CLEANING  CONTROLLER  CONTACTS. 

The  cable  connections  to  the  controller  should  always  be  kept  tight,  and 
it  is  essential  that  the  controller  fingers  should  make  firm  connection  with 
the  contacts  corresponding  to  the  different  speeds,  as  otherwise  there  may 
be  arcing,  which  will  roughen  their  surfaces  and  cause  the  lever  to  work 
hard.  If  the  contacts  become  burnt  they  may  be  smoothed  with  a  file,  when 
the  current  is  cut  off  by  the  safety  plug,  and  a  minute  amount  of  vaseline 
rubbed  dver  them  to  lessen  friction.  All  copper  particles  or  other  dust 
should  be  blown  or  wiped  off  from  the  controller  and  its  connections,  as  it 
might  cause  a  short  circuit. 

The  acid  fumes  produced  by  the  battery,  and  the  slopping  of  the  elec- 
trolyte which  sometimes  takes  place,  are  likely  to  cause  a  destructive  corro- 
sion of  all  metal  parts  subjected  to  their  influence.  Wherever  it  can  be 
used  asphaltum  or  tar  paint  will  be  found  a  good  preservative,  and  parts 
which  cannot  be  so  treated  should  be  frequently  wiped  off. 
RUNNING  GEAR  LUBRICATION. 

Lubrication  of  the  front  wheel  and  rear  axle  bearings  and  those  of 
the  rear  wheels  should  be  attended  to  from  time  to  time.  Non-fluid  oil  is 
the  lubricant  generally  used  for  wheel  bearings  and  fluid  oil  for  the  axle 
bearings.  Such  an  adjustment  of  the  wheel  bearings  should  be  secured 
as  will  allow  of  perfect  freedom  of  rotation  without  any  tendency  to 
wobble.  Manufacturers'  instructions  as  to  adjustment  and  lubrication 
should  be  carefully  followed. 

In  the  case  of  gear  driven  electrics  which  have  the  gears  completely 
housed  an  occasional  replenishment  of  the  gear  case  with  grease  of  medium 
stiffness,  with  which  has  been  mixed  a  quantity  of  flake  graphite,  will  be 
found  effective.  If  the  filling  hole  in  the  gear  case  is  small  the  grease  may 
well  be  melted  and  poured  in.  Where  gears  are  not  fully  housed  more  fre- 
quent lubrication  is  required  and  a  mixture  of  non-fluid  oil  and  graphite 
should  be  frequently  "slushed"  over  the  gear  teeth.  The  same  mixture  is 
effective  upon  the  chains  of  electrics  which  employ  them.  The  degree  of 
tightness  of  chains  is  important.  They  should  not  be  so  tight  as  to  run 
hard  nor  so  loose  as  to  be  in  danger  of  running  off  or  climbing  the 
sprockets  and  thus  being  broken.  In  adjusting  a  chain  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  rear  axle  is  not  thrown  out  of  parallelism  with  the  front  axle. 
Sometimes  means  are  provided  for  adjusting  the  pitch  of  gears,  and  if  a 
gear  seems  to  drive  its  mate  with  unnecessary  noise  the  pair  may  be  found 
so  closely  pitched  that  the  teeth  nearly  or  quite  "bottom."  This  involves 
unnecessary  wear  and  a  waste  of  power. 

The  enclosed  "silent  chains,"  now  so  largely  used  in  the  transmission 
gear  of  electrics,  require  but  little  attention.    The  oil  baths  in  which  they 
operate  should,  however,  be  occasionally  replenished  with  fresh  lubricant 
after  the  old  oil  has  been  thoroughly  washed  out. 
STEERING  GEAR  AND  BRAKES. 

The  steering  gear  deserves  most  careful  attention,  as  its  mechanical 
integrity  is  a  life  and  death  matter.  All  joints  must  be  frequently  lubri- 
cated, and  all  nuts  must  be  kept  tight.  The  gear,  at  the  same  time, 
should  operate  with  perfect  freedom.  The  front  wheels  should  be 
adjusted  to  true  parallelism  or  undue  tire  wear  will  take  place.  Brake 
band  linings  should  never  be  allowed  to  become  worn  out,  and  brake 

207 


adjustments  should  be  frequently  proved  correct.  The  only  proper  test 
of  a  brake  is  to  drive  the  car  partly  up  a  steep  pitch  in  the  road  where 
there  is  plenty  of  backing  room,  in  case  it  is  needed,  and  then  to  see 
whether  each  brake  is  able  to  hold  the  car  from  running  backward.  If 
not,  a  better  brake  adjustment  is  required.  A  brake  which  will  hold  a 
car  from  backing  may  almost  always  be  depended  upon  to  stop  its  for- 
ward motion  under  at  least  as  severe  conditions.  It  is  not  well  to 
depend  upon  using  the  reverse  for  forward  braking  or  the  application 
of  a  forward  speed  to  prevent  the  car's  running  backward,  as  there  is 
grave  danger  of  stripping  the  motor  pinion,  twisting  off  the  armature 
shaft  or  doing  other  serious  damage  if  these  expedients  are  resorted  to 
except  in  a  most  cautious  manner. 

SIGNS  OF  DISTRESS. 

An  electric  vehicle  is  normally  so  quiet  in  operation  that  any  unusual 
rattle  or  other  sound  is  quickly  recognized.  Such  sounds  should  be  traced 
and  their  causes  removed.  Sometimes  the  squeaking  of  the  spring  leaves 
rubbing  one  upon  the  other  becomes  quite  annoying.  It  may  be  obviated 
by  the  insertion  of  graphite  grease  between  the  ends  of  the  leaves,  the  latter 
being  slightly  separated  by  forcing  a  screwdriver  point  between  them. 

There  is  quite  a  perceptible  difference  between  the  power  required  to 
drive  an  electric  vehicle  with  fully  inflated  and  with  partly  deflated  tires 
— the  advantage  resting  with  the  hard  tires.  Electric  vehicle  tires  should 
thus  be  kept  sufficiently  inflated  so  that  the  weight  of  the  car  flattens 
them  but  very  little  at  the  points  of  contact. 
AMMETER  READINGS. 

The  driver  of  an  electric  carriage  has  one  advantage  over  the  steam 
or  gasoline  car  operator,  in  that  he  has  constantly  before  him  a  means 
for  determining  the  mechanical  running  condition  of  his  vehicle.  The 
ammeter  indications,  if  studiously  observed,  will  furnish  an  indication 
of  undue  friction  in  any  part  of  the  mechanism.  If  the  operator  finds 
that  the  ammeter  reads  higher  than  usual,  when  the  car  is  traveling  a 
certain  road  under  certain  conditions,  he  may  feel  that  there  is  some 
faulty  adjustment  or  lack  of  lubrication  which  requires  attention. 
CHARGING  OUTFIT. 

It  is  here  assumed  that  the  charging  and  other  care  of  the  vehicle 
battery  is  to  be  performed  by  the  owner,  or  under  his  direction,  and 
that  charging  facilities  are  available.  The  charging  switchboard  should 
be  provided  with  an  ammeter,  and,  unless  the  supply  is  at  a  constant 
voltage,  with  a  voltmeter.  In  addition  to  the  main  switch,  rheostat 
and  charging  cords,  there  may  well  be  included  an  overload  and  reverse 
current  circuit  breaker,  the  former  to  limit  the  current  strength  sent 
into  the  battery  and  the  latter  to  prevent  a  discharge  of  the  battery 
through  the  charging  circuit,  in  case  of  low  voltage  in  the  latter.  If 
a  mercury  rectifier  is  the  source  of  current,  these  possibilities  will  be 
found  to  be  provided  for  in  the  regular  equipment.  If  someone  is  to 
be  at  hand  during  the  whole  charging  period  the  circuit  breakers  may 
be  dispensed  with. 

DETERMINING  POLARITY. 

In  case  a  vehicle  battery  is  ever  charged  on  the  road,  at  stations 
which  do  not  make  a  business  of  such  service,  it  is  well  for  the  operator 

.208 


to  know  how  to  distinguish  the  polarity  of  the  charging  leads.  If  the 
two  wires  of  the  charging  circuit  are  held  a  slight  distance  apart  in  a 
glass  vessel  of  water  and  a  few  drops  of  acid  or  a  small  pinch  of  salt 
added  to  the  liquid,  bubbles  will  begin  to  rise  from  the  two  immersed 
conductors.  One  will  give  off  gas  much  more  freely  than  the  other. 
This  is  the  negative  and  should  be  attached  to  the  negative  charging 
terminal  of  the  car.  The  immersed  wire,'  which  gives  off  little  gas  and 
blackens  rapidly,  is,  of  course,  the  positive. 

WHEN  TO  RECHARGE. 

It  is  time  that  the  battery  received  a  full  charge  when  its  running 
voltage  drops  to  1.75  volts  per  cell.  It  should  on  no  account  be  exhausted 
to  a  lower  voltage  than  this,  and  the  car  voltmeter  should  be  frequently 
consulted,  while  one  is  on  the  road,  so  that  one  may  not  be  "stranded" 
at  a  distance  from  a  charging  station,  with  the  battery  fully  exhausted. 
By  "running  voltage"  is  meant  the  voltage  shown  by  the  voltmeter  when 
the  car  is  being  driven  at  full  speed  over  a  good  level  road.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  voltage  indications  derived  from  the  battery  when 
on  open  circuit  are  meaningless,  so  far  as  its  condition  as  to  charge  is 
concerned.  A  twenty-four  cell  lead  battery  is  in  need  of  charging  when 
its  "running  voltage"  falls  to  42  volts,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  a 
thirty  cell  battery  at  52  volts  and  a  forty  cell  battery  at  70  volts.  These 
figures  are  necessarily  a  general  average,  and  if  the  manufacturers  of  a 
particular  car  or  battery  quote  others  particularly  applicable  to  their 
product  they  should  be  followed  in  preference  to  the  abdve. 
MILEAGE. 

In  determining  when  a  battery  requires  recharging  the  mileage  which 
the  car  has  made  since  its  last  charge  should  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion, and  a  trip  odometer,  set  at  zero  each  time  the  car  is  charged,  is 
convenient  for  this  purpose.  The  condition  of  the  roads  traveled  should, 
of  course,  be  considered  in  estimating  the  work  which  has  been  taken 
out  of  the  battery.  As  a  rule  it  is  not  advisable  to  recharge  a  battery 
unless  its  charge  is  at  least  one-half  expended,  and  the  length  of  charge 
given  it,  if  only  partially  exhausted,  should  be  proportioned  to  the  frac- 
tion of  the  charge  which  is  estimated  to  have  been  utilized.  Unnecessarily 
frequent  charging  is  found  to  be  disadvantageous.  The  charge  in  ampere 
hours  to  be  given  a  partially  discharged  battery  is  often  taken  as  the 
estimated  ampere  hours  of  discharge,  plus  15  or  20  per  cent.  If  one 
carries  an  odometer  or  recording  ampere  hour  meter,  or  has  some  other 
means  of  estimating  the  mileage  covered,  any  noticeable  reduction  in  the 
distance  which  the  car  can  travel  on  a  single  charge,  as  time  goes  on,  will 
become  apparent.  When  such  diminution  in  discharge  capacity  becomes 
obvious  it  is  evident  that  the  battery  is  out  of  condition,  assuming  that 
the  car  is  running  at  its  usual  rate  of  current  consumption. 
RATE  OF  CHARGE. 

The  rate  at  which  a  particular  battery  should  be  charged  is  best 
obtained  from  the  manufacturer's  published  figures.  As  a  rule,  a  cer- 
tain number  of  amperes  (regulated  by  the  charging  rheostat  or  by  the 
voltage  control  of  the  rectifier)  is  prescribed  for  each  type  of  cell.  This 
rate  is  maintained  until  the  voltmeter  shows  that  a  certain  voltage  rise 

,209 


has  taken  place — a  voltage  of  about  2.55  volts  per  cell  (current  flowing) 
is  frequently  the  figure  named.  The  current  is  then  reduced  to  a  value 
about  one-half  of  that  previously  supplied,  which,  of  course,  causes  the 
voltage  to  drop  considerably.  This  reduced  amperage  is  then  maintained 
until  the  voltage  rises  again  to,  say,  2.55  volts  per  cell,  when  the  charge 
is  regarded  as  complete.  Some  manufacturers  prescribe  a  fixed  amperage 
for  the  first  part  of  the  charge,  which  is  continued  until  the  voltage  reaches 
about  2.55  volts  per  cell  (current  flowing),  and  a  diminishing  current 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  charge  sufficient  to  maintain  this  voltage — 
the  current  being  cut  off  when  the  amperage  required  to  maintain  this 
voltage  falls  below  a  prescribed  figure. 

ACID  FUMES  AND  HEAT. 

It  is  very  desirable  that  the  battery  compartment  of  the  car  should  be 
fully  opened  during  charge,  in  order  that  the  acid  spray  and  explosive 
gases  generated,  particularly  during  the  latter  part  of  the  charge,  may 
readily  escape.  There  should  be  good  ventilation  in  the  stable  where 
charging  is  conducted,  as  otherwise  the  air  may  become  too  irritating  to  be 
breathed  with  comfort,  very  corrosive  to  all  metal  surfaces,  and  possibly 
highly  explosive.  The  temperature  of  the  cells  should  be  carefully  watched 
during  the  charge,  and  if  they  become  very  hot  to  the  touch  the  current 
may  well  be  reduced  or  the  charge  may  be  discontinued  long  enough  to 
allow  the  cells  to  resume  a  safe  temperature. 

'     PRECAUTIONS  IN  CHARGING. 

It  is  a  safe  plan  never  at  any  time  to  exceed  the  charging  rate  advised 
by  the  manufacturers,  but  if,  owing  to  lack  of  time,  it  is  very  important 
that  the  charge  be  hastened,  the  excess  of  charging  current  should  be 
applied  during  the  first  part  of  the  process  only,  and  never  at  or  near  the 
finish  of  the  charge,  which  should  always  be  conducted  according  to  direc- 
tions. When  charging,  always  keep  in  mind  the  extent  to  which  the 
previous  charge  has  been  exhausted,  and  plan  the  recharge  accordingly. 

While  the  car  is  in  operation  under  ordinary  conditions  of  level  road 
the  running  voltage  will  be  found  to  be  about  2.2  volts  per  cell  until  the 
charge  shows  signs  of  exhaustion. 

SPILLING  OF  ELECTROLYTE. 

It  is  of  importance  that  the  electrolyte  in  all  the  cells  be  maintained  at 
the  proper  height.  There  is  frequently  some  loss  of  liquid  by  slopping,  and 
some  through  evaporation  and  spraying.  Sometimes  through  accident  a 
cell  may  break,  its  solution  be  lost,  and  wet  the  battery  compartment,  as 
well  as  dripping  upon  the  running  gear  and  corroding  it.  Solution  spilt 
into  the  battery  compartment  deteriorates  the  woodwork,  and  may  cause 
serious  leakage  of  current.  The  elements  of  the  broken  cell  are  likely  to  be 
considerably  injured,  and  the  capacity  of  the  battery  as  a  whole  is  reduced. 
If  there  is  evidence  of  spilt  acid  around  the  cells  the  source  should  be 
determined  and  the  defect  remedied.  It  is  customary  to  keep  the  liquid 
within  the  cells  at  such  a  height  as  fully  to  cover  the  elements.  If  the  level 
is  reduced  by  slopping  or  spraying  fresh  electrolyte  of  the  proper  gravity 
should  be  added  to  replace  the  loss.  In  case  the  loss' has  been  occasioned 
by  evaporation  the  proper  quantity  of  distilled  water  should  be  added. 


SYRINGE  AND  HYDROMETER. 

Every  user  of  an  electric  vehicle  should  be  provided  with  a  battery 
syringe  and  a  hydrometer  for  determining  the  specific  gravity  of  the  elec- 
trolyte, and  the  condition  of  the  liquid  in  each  cell  should  be  occasionally 
tested.  The  use  of  this  instrument  has  been  fully  discussed  in  an  earlier 
part  of  this  work.  The  proper  density  of  the  liquid,  when  the  cells  are 
fully  charged,  is  usually  considered  to  be  about  1.300,  or  34°  Baume, 
although  some  authorities  give  1:250  s.  g.,  or  28°  B.  If,  in  testing  the 
charged  individual  cells,  certain  ones  are  found  the  liquid  of  which  shows 
a  smaller  density,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  they  are  out  of  condition  for 
some  reason.  Low  gravity  of  the  solution  will  often  be  found  coincident 
with  low  cell  voltage  and  a  white  appearance  of  the  plates,  which  indicates 
a  sulphated  condition. 

TESTING  CELLS. 

A  low  reading  voltmeter  should  be  periodically  employed  to  ascertain 
the  voltage  of  the  separate  cells.  The  battery  should  be  put  on  discharge 
through  a  rheostat,  and  the  cell  voltages  then  taken.  Any  cells  which  show 
a  voltage  noticeably  below  the  average  should  be  noted  for  future  treat- 
ment. Sometimes,  however,  these  "low"  cells  may  be  brought  up  by  com- 
pletely discharging  the  whole  battery  through  a  rheostat  or  otherwise,  and 
then  immediately  subjecting  it  to  a  moderate  overcharge  at  a  reasonable 
amperage.  In  fact,  a  slight  periodical  overcharge  of  a  battery  is  regarded 
as  beneficial  rather  than  otherwise,  but,  as  before  stated,  habitual  over- 
charging is  to  be  carefully  avoided.  If,  however,  any  cells  which  are  found 
to  be  "low"  are  short  circuited  or  otherwise  seriously  deranged  the  above 
treatment  will  afford  no  permanent  cure— the  defective  cells  immediately 
degenerating  into  their  previous  "sick"  condition,  which  is  recognizable  by 
low  voltage,  low  gravity  of  the  electrolyte  or  an  abnormal  appearance  of 
the  plates. 

CLEANING  CELLS. 

Active  material  is  likely  to  scale  off  the  plates  from  the  effects  of  hard 
service,  jarring  or  an  excessive  rate  of  charge,  and  sometimes  may  collect 
as  sediment  in  the  bottom  of  the  jars.  If  it  collects  in  sufficient  quantity, 
it  may  bridge  the  positive  and  negative  groups  of  plates  and  short  circuit 
the  cell,  destructively  discharging  it.  Sometimes  the  separators  of  the 
opposing  groups  of  plates  of  a  cell  become  bridged  by  sediment  and  a  short 
circuit  results.  A  short  circuited  cell  is  prone  to  heat  badly,  and  lose  its 
voltage  and  charge  rapidly.  It  is  essential  that  sediment  be  removed  from 
the  jars  and  the  jars  thoroughly  washed  out  before  much  falling  of  active 
material  has  taken  place.  The  elements  should  be  exposed  to  the  air  as 
short  a  time  as  possible.  The  connections  between  cells  should  be  seen  to 
be  intact. 

In  case  a  cell  appears  to  be  internally  short  circuited  or  otherwise  defec- 
tive so  that  it  cannot  be  brought  up  to  a  normal  capacity,  it  is  better  for 
the  average  user  to  call  upon  the  manufacturer  for  assistance  in  rectifying 
the  trouble.  Of  course,  if  one  wishes,  the  "low"  cells  may  be  removed  from 
the  trays  and  given  special,  repeated,  low  rate  charges  and  discharges  in 
order  to  try  to  bring  up  their  capacity.  A  detailed  treatment  of  the 
derangements  common  to  storage  cells  and  the  means  for  their  correc- 
tion will  be  found  in  the  first  chapter  of  this  book. 


To  PREVENT  SULPHATING. 

One  thing  which  should  carefully  be  avoided  is  allowing  a  battery  to 
remain  fully  discharged  for  any  length  of  time,  as  serious  sulphating  of 
the  plates  will  be  the  result.  The  battery  of  any  car  which  is  out  of  regular 
service  should,  at  intervals  of  three  or  four. weeks,  be  discharged  through 
a  rheostat,  or  otherwise,  and  then  given  a  full  fresh  charge.  Of  course, 
the  battery  of  a  car  which  is  out  of  commission  may  be  disassembled,  but 
this  process  involves  considerable  labor  and  the  adoption  of  special  pre- 
cautions in  order  to  avoid  injury  to  the  plates.  Periodical  discharging 
and  charging  is  not  very  expensive  or  troublesome.  It  tends  to  reduce 
the  effects  of  local  action,  the  result  of  which  is  lessened  capacity. 
SUMMARIZED  INSTRUCTIONS. 

Instructions  covering  the  main  points  in  the  care  of  a  vehicle  battery 
may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows:  Do  not  discharge  the  battery  too 
far  and  do  not  let  it  long  remain  discharged.  Do  not  habitually  overcharge 
it  or  charge  too  frequently,  but  let  the  charge  be  proportioned  to  the 
extent  to  which  energy  has  been  taken  from  it.  Follow  instructions  as  to 
charging  rates.  Note  the  mileage  obtainable  from  a  charge,  and  if  it 
diminishes  obviously,  ascertain  the  cause  at  once.  Watch  the  condition  of 
the  individual  cells  in  respect  to  voltage,  heating,  retention  of  the  charge 
and  state  of  the  electrolyte  in  point  of  density  and  quantity.  Keep  the 
jars  reasonably  free  from  sediment,  the  battery  compartment  dry  and 
the  cell  connections  tight.  When  a  cell  seems  incurably  "sick"  let  the 
manufacturer  deal  with  it. 


GARAGES,   WASHING   AND   SHIPPING  CARS. 


Private  Garages. 

The  building  shown  in  the  accompanying  plans  makes  an  ideal  garage 
for  the  man  with  one  or  two  cars  and  a  chauffeur.  It  is  of  two 
story  construction,  but  can  be  built  only  one  story  high,  if  there  is  no 
chauffeur  and  the  owner  is  of  a  mechanical  turn  of  mind,  and  can  make 
his  own  repairs.  Every- 
thing has  been  designed 
with  the  idea  of  econo- 
mizing space,  reducing 
fire  risks  and  minimizing 
all  chances  of  accidents. 
The  building  is  made  as 
nearly  fireproof  as  possi- 
ble, ventilation,  heating, 
lighting  and  plumbing 
all  being  taken  into  con- 
sideration. The  con- 
struction is  of  cement 
pressed  into  blocks,  in 
imitation  of  cut  stone, 
with  a  roof  of  terra  cotta 
tile.  This  is  an  ideal 
construction  for  such  a 
building.  The  cement 
blocks  are  made  by  a 
very  simple  and  cheap 
machine,  by  which  any 
design  or  style  of  stone 
can  be  imitated  in  ce- 
ment, at  a  cost  cheaper 
than  either  stone  or 
brick.  The  face  of  these 
blocks  can  be  made  of 
two  parts  cement  and  one 
part  sand;  the  body,  one 
part  cement  and  five 

parts  gravel  and  sand.  These  blocks  are  made  with  a  core  through  them 
to  provide  for  air  circulation  through  them.  The  face  of  the  blocks 
is  impervious  to  water,  resists  all  climatic  changes,  and  will  not  crumble 
or  disintegrate. 

The  building  shown  is  22  feet  wide  and  35  feet  long,  and  the  car  room 
on  the  first  floor  will  comfortably  hold  two  large  touring  cars,  with 
ample  space  for  turning.  The  car  room  is  20  feet  wide  and  25  feet  long. 


FIG.  107. — FIRST  FLOOR  PLAN. 


213 


with  an  entrance  of  large  double  doors,  10  feet  wide,  which  swing  in 
and  back  against  the  front  walls,  taking  up  no  space  when  open.  These 
doors  may  be  made  after  the  fashion  of  Dutch  doors,  and  when 
desired  the  upper  half  can  be  swung  open  while  the  lower  half  is  kept 
closed.  The  floor  is  of  cement,  one  corner  being  so  constructed  as  to 
provide  space  for  washing  the  cars.  This  space  has  a  drain  in  the  centre, 
which  is  about  2  inches  lower  than  the  sides,  which  are  on  a  level  with 
the  floor.  This  confines  all  water  to  this  space,  so  that  the  entire  floor 
is  not  slopped  up  when  washing. 

Directly  overhead  on  the  ceiling  is  placed  a  washing  machine,  of  which 
there  are  several  on  the  market.  These  machines  consist  of  a  ceiling 
plate,  a  ball  bearing  joint,  and  a  hose  arm  of  iron  pipe  about  5  feet  long, 
which  swings  horizontally  near  the  ceiling,  and  to  which  a  rubber  hose 
is  attached  that  is  just  long  enough  to  reach  the  floor.  This  is  very 
handy,  as  a  man  can  walk  all  around  the  car  and  swing  the  hose  around 
with  him.  Nozzles  for  washing  can  be  purchased  which  give  intermit- 
tent jets  of  water,  which  are  very  effective  in  removing  caked  mud. 

A  gasoline  pump  is  located  in  this  room,  with  the  tank  sunk  under- 
ground outside  of  the  building.  The  pump  shown  is  of  well  known 
make,  and  is  very  convenient  and  economical.  This  pump  can  be  regu- 
lated so  that  any  desired  amount  of  gasoline  can  be  drawn  from  the  tank. 
This  prevents  running  over  of  tanks  while  filling,  and  results  in  a  great 
saving. 

Four  large  windows  are  provided  in  this  room,  and  they  are  so 
arranged  that  by  lifting  the  lower  sash  the  upper  sash  is  lowered  at  the 
same  time,  which  furnishes  a  draught,  removing  immediately  all  smoke 
and  odors.  All  the  windows  on  the  first  floor  are  protected  by  orna- 
mental iron  guards  on  the  outside. 

Heating  has  been  arranged  for  by  providing  coils  of  pipe  run  around 
the  walls,  about  2  or  3  feet  from  the  floor,  in  order  to  be  out  of  the 
way.  In  this  room  should  be  placed  a  sandbox  and  a  few  chemical 
extinguishers  for  fire  use  in  case  of  emergency.  Sprinklers  should  be 
arranged  on  the  ceiling,  about  3  feet  apart.  A  track  for  a  chain  hoist 
should  run  from  the  car  room  back  into  the  repair  shop,  in  order  to 
enable  one  to  remove  the  engine,  transmission  or  any  other  heavy  part 
from  the  car  and  run  it  into  the  repair  shop  for  repairs.  This  hoist  can 
also  be  used  for  removing  or  changing  car  bodies. 

The  repair  shop  is  located  in  the  rear,  and  has  three  windows  and 
a  rear  entrance.  This  room  may  well  contain  a  workbench,  a  lathe,  a 
drill  press,  and  an  emery  wheel.  Power  for  these  machines  may  be 
furnished  by  an  electric  motor,  which  may  also  be  utilized  for  operating 
a  power  air  pump  for  inflating  tires  and  cleaning  by  compressed  air. 
Electric  light  wires  for  lighting  purposes  should  be  run  in  iron  pipe  and 
be  connected  to  incandescent  lamps  through  ceiling  brackets,  which  are 
bolted  to  the  ceiling  with  a  ball  joint,  and  have  adjustable  arms,  so  that 
the  light  may  be  thrown  in  any  desired  position.  An  oil  tank,  with  force 
pump  for  lubricating  oils,  may  be  conveniently  kept  under  an  ornamental 
iron  stairway  which  leads  to  the  second  floor.  On  this  floor  are  three 
rooms,  a  front  room  12  feet  wide  by  20  feet  long,  intended  for  the 
chauffeur,  and  a  bathroom,  8x13  feet,  containing  a  bathtub,  stationary 

214 


washstand  and  a  toilet. 
The  third  room  is  a  store- 
room, which  may  be  used  for 
storing  extra  tires,  batteries, 
lamps,  touring  baskets,  trunks 
and  other  supplies.  Across 
the  hall  i's  provided  a  large 
closet  for  winter  coats,  furs, 
waterproofs,  linen  dusters  and 
all  necessary  clothing  needed 
on  touring  trips.  These 
rooms  may  be  changed  to  suit 
individual  ideas,  or  the  en- 
tire second  floor  may  be 
turned  into  one  large  room 
and  used  for  storing  cars  in 
winter  if  not  in  use.  A  lift 
could  be  installed,  operated 
by  electric,  power,  to  run  from 
the  first  to  the  second  floor 
for  hoisting  cars. 

A  building  laid  out  and 
constructed  along  these  lines 
will  be  both  ornamental  as 
well  as  serviceable,  and  will 
well  repay  its  cost. 


FIG.  108.— SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


In  case  fireproof  qualities 
are  not  considered  essential, 

and  the  cost  is  to  be  kept  down  to  a  minimum,  the  following  brief  specifica- 
tions may  prove  of  value: 

(WALTER  C  SCOTT.) 

In  building  a  garage  the  first  thing  to  be  thought  of  is  the  site.  The 
owner  should  choose  a  high  one  with  plenty  of  sunlight  if  he  would 
avoid  dampness.  Next  comes  the  floor,  which  should  be  of  cement,  slop- 
ing toward  the  front.  If  the  owner  wishes,  he  may  have  a  pit  in  the 
centre,  but  this  is  by  no  means  necessary,  especially  if  the  engine  of  his 
car  be  under  the  hood  and  not  under  the  body. 

A  well  built  frame  building  is  good  enough  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses. Its  size  will  depend  on  that  of  the  owner's  pocketbook,  but  it  should 
hardly  be  less  than  10x20  feet.  There  should  be  a  window  at  each  side, 
and  a  skylight  is  highly  desirable,  not  only  for  assisting  the  owner  to 
see  the  inside  of  his  car  but  for  ventilation.  Some  men  prefer  to  have 
doors  at  both  front  and  back  of  the  garage,  thus  doing  away  with  the 
annoyance  of  backing  in  or  out.  A  workbench  may  be  erected  at  one 
side,  and  a  tool  chest  is  handy. 

There  is,  of  course,  an  element  of  danger  in  connection  with  the  heat- 
ing, lighting  and  draining  that  should  not  be  neglected.  Steam  heat  is 
best,  but  where  it  is  not  to  be  had  a  room  should  be  built  at  the  side 


215 


of  the  garage  for  a  stove  or  a  small  furnace.  The  only  artificial  light 
to  be  used  in  the  building  should  be  produced  by  electricity.  If  the 
current  cannot  be  obtained  from  a  power  house  a  pocket  flashlight  can 
be  used  when  needed,  but  all  repairs  are  best  made  in  the  daytime. 

The  water  from  the  washstand  should  be  led  through  a  drain  to  a 
cesspool  outside  the  building,  thus  avoiding  the  danger  of  gasoline 
explosions. 

If  the  owner  cannot  afford  to  buy  one  of  the  gasoline  storage  outfits 
he  should  place  a  galvanized  tank  at  a  safe  distance  from  the  garage, 
and  under  no  conditions  should  gasoline  be  kept  in  the  building  in  an 
open  vessel.  If  city  water  be  installed  a  hose  can  be  used  to  fill  the 
radiator  and  to  wash  the  car.  Care  should  be  taken  to  loosen  the  mud 
with  the  water  before  a  sponge  is  applied.  Tires  should  not  be  washed, 
as  water  injures  the  rubber. 


It  is  sometimes  found  convenient  to  have  the  auto  stable"  attached  to 
the  owner's  dwelling,  and  in  such  cases  the  motor  room  should  be  sepa- 
rated by  sound  and  fireproof  partitions  from  the  main  house,  and  have 
an  inside  entrance  by  a  double  door,  as  well  as  its  outside  portal.  The 
floor  should  be  of  cement,  and  slope  gradually,  not  to  the  centre  but 
to  the  most  convenient  side,  where  water  will  be  caught  in  a  shallow 
and  wide  gutter  and  carried  to  a  coarse  strainer,  thence  to  a  large  water 
trap,  and  so  to  the  sewer.  Everything  about  this  drainage  system  should 
be  large,  for  it  will  have  much  mud  to  contend  with. 

This  floor  should  be  but  little  above  the  ground  level,  and  the  ap- 
proach should  be  very  easy.  Half  the  broken  lamps  and  damaged  radia- 
tors are  due  to  steep  entrances. 

The  heating  system  and  illumination  should  be  the  same  as  those  of 
the  main  house.  Probably  hot  water  and  certainly  electricity.  Natural 
illumination  should  be  as  great  as  the  circumstances  will  allow. 

STORING  CAPACITY. 

The  floor  space  should  be  able  to  accommodate,  at  a  pinch,  three  cars. 
A  man  who  uses  his  cars  for  business  needs  two,  and  a  possible  visitor 
must  be  provided  for.  There  should  be  room  also  for  a  workbench  along 
the  lighted  side,  and  the  ceiling  should  be  n  or  12  feet  high  at  least. 

Electric  light  plugs  should  be  many,  but  it  is  not  essential  that  all 
should  have  bulbs.  One  or  two  on  opposite  sides  of  the  room  should  be 
near  the  base  of  the  wall.  These  are  for  the  portable  lights.  It  leaves 
the  wires  on  the  floor  when  in  use,  and  not  in  a  position  so  liable  to  trip 
one  or  to  need  stepping  over.  The  portable  lights  themselves  should  be 
provided  with  a  large  copper  wire  hook,  preferably  with  a  swivel  in  its 
base.  With  such  a  hook  one  can  hang  the  light  to  almost  anything.  One 
light  should  be  capable  of  being  switched  on  from  outside  the  outer 
entrance  and  another  from  outside  the  inner  door.  This  will  save  many 
barked  shins,  both  entering  and  leaving  the  room. 

The  writer  does  not  recommend  a  pit,  as  the  average  pit  is  a  sink  that 
should  be  suppressed  by  the  board  of  health.  It  is  a  dirty,  dark,  damp,  dis- 
agreeable hole,  sure  to  be  oily,  smelly  and,  however  beautifully  provided 
with  steps,  hard  to  get  into  or  out  of  when  covered  by  a  car.  When  one 

216 


does  get  in  one  is  sure  to  find  that  one  has  left  just  the  tool  most  needed 
on  the  bench,  and  when  one  has  finished  in  the  pit  and  taken  the  work  to 
the  bench,  lo  and  behold !  the  whole  tool  kit  is  in  the  pit.  A  substitute  for 
the  pit  may  be  constructed  in  the  form  of  an  elevated  platform  of  strong 
construction,  on  to  which  the  car  is  run  or  hauled  over  an  inclined  plane 
approach. 

Through  an  outer  wall  of  this  room,  in  some  convenient,  out  of  the 
way  spot,  an  iron  pipe  should  be  let.  A  flexible  hose  connection,  with  a 
slip  joint  big  enough  to  slide  over  the  exhaust  pipe  of  the  muffler,  should 
be  provided.  Adapters  to  fit  various  sizes  of  exhaust  pipes  are  easy  to 
arrange.  This  simple  contrivance  the  writer  knows  from  experience  to  be 
exceedingly  convenient,  as  it  allows  running  the  motor  indefinitely  in  a 
closed  and  heated  room  without  vitiating  its  atmosphere.  At  times  this 
is  a  very  important  point,  as  the  exhaust  gases  are  by  no  means  harmless. 
The  contrivance  costs  little  in  money  or  trouble,  and  it  seems  queer  that 
it  is  not  more  common. 

WASHING  FACILITIES. 

An  overhead  swivelled  connection  for  the  washing  hose  should  be  pro- 
vided, with  the  plumbing  so  arranged  that  the  hose  can  deliver  water  of 
any  temperature.  Also  the  working  end  of  the  hose  should  be  provided 
with  means  for  holding  a  sponge.  Such  an  attachment  is  now  on  the 
market. 

A  washstand,  suitably  equipped,  will  prevent  much  disorder  in  the 
family  bathroom. 

A  long  distance  gasoline  outfit,  and  a  few  chemical  extinguishers, 
with  the  regular  washing  hose,  should  be  ample  fire  protection.  A 
fusible  plug  with  sprinkler  in  the  overhead  plumbing  should  render  this 
system  perfect.  Drip  pans  filled  with  sand,  to  be  emptied  into  the  ash 
cans  when  foul,  should  be  provided,  and  waste  gasoline  or  kerosene 
should  be  burnt  outdoors. 


Heating  and  Ventilating  Garages. 

(N.    B.    POPE.) 

The  problem  of  heating  and  ventilating  the  garage  is  one  which 
demands  the  serious  consideration  of  every  owner,  and,  as  a  great  many 
cars  are  at  present  kept  in  small,  unwarmed  buildings,  the  following  sug- 
gestions may  be  helpful  in  enabling  users  to  overcome  this  difficulty: 

A  certain  amount  of  heat  must  be  supplied  during  cold  weather  to  keep 
the  working  parts  of  the  car  limber  and  to  render  less  arduous  the  neces- 
sary labor  of  starting,  washing  and  oiling.  That  ventilation  is  needed 
wherever  gasoline  is  in  use  is  axiomatic. 

Herein,  however,  it  is  intended  merely  to  enunciate  certain  principles, 
and  to  suggest  a  simple  method  or  two  by  which  the  desired  results  may 
be  obtained. 

The  conditions  involved  in  the  case  of  a  large  station  comprising  shops, 
offices,  and  several  floors  are  too  numerous  and  complicated  to  be  taken 
up  in  detail  here,  but  in  the  small  stable  and  private  motor  house  they  are 

217 


less   complex   and   are,   perhaps,   of   more   vital   interest   to   the   average 
motorist. 

Considering  first  the  matter  of  heating,  the  problem  is  to  keep  the 
storage  place  at  a  reasonably  uniform  temperature  throughout  all  weather 
changes,  and  this  without  danger  of  igniting  the  vapors  which  are  so  much 
to  be  dreaded. 

The  temperature  which  is  to  be  maintained,  with  which  the  choice  of 
method  to  a  large  extent  varies,  depends  chiefly  on  the  fancy  of  the  owner. 
The  only  absolute  requirement  is  that  the  temperature  shall  never  get  low" 
enough  to  freeze  the  water  in  tanks  and  pipes.  This  is  essential,  not 
simply  because  of  the  dangers  attendant  upon  freezing  the  cooling  water 
of  gasoline  machines  or  the  boilers  of  steamers,  but  also  on  account  of  the 
unpleasantness  of  working  about  cold  machinery,  and  the  difficulty  of 
filling  grease  cups  and  lubricators  when  the  oil  is  congealed.  Besides,  if 
kept  in  a  cold  stable,  the  bearings  of  a  car  become  so  stiff  as  to  use  up 
considerable  extra  power  when  run  again,  while  if  they  are  kept  reason- 
ably warm  when  the  car  is  standing  they  will  not  stiffen  up  while  on  the 
road,  except  in  extreme  weather.  Moreover,  certain  types  of  carburetors 
give  trouble  when  cold. 

Its  inflammable  character  and  the  fact  that  gasoline  vapor  is  heavier 
than  air  make  it  imperative  that  the  heater  be  one  which  contains  no  open 
fire— at  least  within  the  walls  of  the  building.  As  it  is  necessary  that  gaso- 
line be  handled  in  the  garage,  the  precautionary  measures  must  consist 
essentially  of  placing  the  fire  where  the  vapor  cannot  come  in  contact 
with  it.  This  may  be  done  by  locating  the  source  of  heat  in  another 
building  or  in  a  compartment  of  the  same  building  which  is  partitioned 
off  by  fireproof  walls,  and  having  its  entrance  from  the  outside  only. 
Basement,  boiler  and  furnace  rooms,  as  used  in  other  buildings,  are  out 
of  the  question.  And  in  this  connection  it  may  be  noted  that  the  use  of 
basement  floors  in  a  garage  is  always  unsafe,  unless  special  ventilation  is 
provided  for  removing  the  heavy  gases  which  accumulate  there.  The  not 
uncommon  practice  of  locating  shops  and  battery  rooms  in  ill  lighted, 
unventilated  sub-floors  is  extremely  dangerous,  both  on  account  of  the  fire 
risk  and  because  of  the  unhealthy  conditions  which  are  to  be  found  there. 

The  heating  of  any  building  may  be  accomplished  by  either  direct  or 
indirect  radiation.  It  may  have  its  own  heating  system  or  it  may  be 
one  of  a  system  of  several  deriving  their  heat  from  a  central  plant, 
just  as  the"  several  floors  may  be  heated  by  a  single  furnace.  As  to  the 
method  of  distributing  the  heat  to  the  air  in  the  various  rooms  this  may 
be  done  by  placing  the  radiating  surface  directly  in  the  room  and  heat- 
ing it  by  circulating  through  it  some  conductor,  like  hot  water  or  steam, 
or  the  radiating  surface  may  be  outside  the  room  and  the  air  heated  by 
being  passed  over  it  and  then  to  the  room  by  pressure  or  induction.  The 
latter  method  introduces  a  combined  heating  and  ventilating  system. 
Evidently  this  method  is  particularly  applicable  to  automobile  houses, 
as  it  eradicates  not  only  all  fire  but  all  heated  surfaces  which  might 
cause  the  charring  of  dry  wood  or  waste,  and  the  ignition  of  the  gaso- 
line vapors  in  an  indirect  way.  But  this  method,  involving  as  it  does 
the  installation  of  fans  and  heating  stacks,  is  too  expensive  for  use 
except  in  elaborate  establishments.  It  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter, 

218 


in  many  cases,  to  use  steam  or  hot  water  heat,  piping  the  supply  from 
a  neighboring  building.  This  is  applicable  to  many  of  the  very  small 
private  garages. 

Where  it  is  necessary  to  heat  the  building  independently  there  are 
several  satisfactory  methods  which  may  be  employed.  One,  an  English 
arrangement,  consists  of  a  small  heater,  using  oil,  or  preferably  gas, 
placed  in  a  metal  sheathed  compartment  on  the  outside  of  the  building, 
to  which  access  is  obtained  from  the  outside.  Within,  on  the  adjacent 
wall,  there  is  placed  a  combined  radiator  and  expansion  tank  of  simple 
construction.  On  the  same  principle  any  small  heater,  as  is  used  for 
greenhouses,  for  instance,  may  be  employed,  the  coils  being  laid  upon 
the  more  exposed  walls  and  under  the  windows. 

A  simplification  of  this  is  to  build  the  compartment  sufficiently  large 
to  enclose  a  stove,  and  to  place  a  sheet  iron  bell  over  it  leading  to  a 
register  in  the  wall,  as  in  Fig.  109.  The  inside  of  this  "lean-to"  must 

be  lined  with  sheet  metal, 
and  a  considerable  air  space 
allowed  between  the  lining 
and  the  sheathing  to  prevent 
undue  leakage  of  heat.  The 
efficiency  of  such  a  method 
would  depend  largely  on  the 
construction  of  the  building 
and  the  amount  of  leakage  of 
heated  air  through  roof  and 
walls,  which  could  easily  be 
reduced  to  a  practical  mimi- 
mum,  and  the  system  thereby 
made  very  effective. 

Turning  to  the  subject  of 
ventilation,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  capacity  of  the  ven- 
tilators must  be  sufficient  to 
remove  any  excess  of  vapor 
which  may  be  caused  by  un- 
locked for  conditions  in  the 
machine,  or  may  be  due  t6 
evaporation  while  filling  or 
using  the  gasoline  for  clean- 
ing purposes. 

Heated  air  rises.  This 
fact  must  be  the  basis  of  all 

considerations  of  the  ventilating  problem,  and  in  many  systems  it  is 
used  to  induce  a  circulation  of  air  from  all  parts  of  the  room  to  one  at 
the  top.  But,  as  already  stated,  gasoline  vapor  is  heavier  than  air,  and 
.must  always  tend  to  stay  near  the  floor,  except  when  stirred  by  a 
draught.  Therefore  the  air  outlet  in  a  garage  must  be  at  the  bottom 
of  the  room  instead  of  at  the  top. 

Many  garages,  especially  the  small  ones,  are  so  flimsily  built  and 
have  so  much  free  ventilation  unavoidably  that  no  special  provision  is 


FIG.    109. — ARRANGEMENT   FOR   HEATING 
SMALL  GARAGES. 


219 


considered  necessary.  But  as  a  safeguard  against  emergencies,  par- 
ticularly at  night,  when  a  flooding  carburetor  or  a  leaky  pipe  joint  may 
be  the  means  of  distributing  several  quarts  of  gasoline  over  the  floor, 
absolutely  certain  ventilation  must  be  secured. 

For  the  small  stable  a  very  simple  method,  which  should  be  effective 
in  clearing  the  danger  zone  within  a  few  inches  of  the  floor,  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  no. 

An  ordinary  stovepipe  is  run  up  one  of  the  walls  of  the  building  and, 
projecting  through  the  roof,  is  topped  with  a  ventilator  cap.  At  the  bottom 
it  is  left  open  a  few  inches  above  the  level  of  the  floor.  Part  way  up  the 

wall  it  is  heated  by  close  con- 
tact with  the  radiator.  Or  it 
may  be  jacketed  and  heated  by 
the  burning  gases  from  the 
stove;  but  this  -is  not  to  be 
recommended  on  account  of 
the  danger  from  sparks  in  the 
smoke  passage.  The  air  within 
it,  thus  heated  considerably 
above  the  mean  temperature 
of  the  room,  will  rise,  and 
form  an  appreciable  draught, 
thus  drawing  from  the  floor 
by  displacement.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  effectiveness  of 
this  depends  on  the  amount  of 
heat  which  can  be  concentrated 
about  the  pipe  at  one  point. 
The  other  radiating  surface 
must  be  so  disposed  as  to  aid 
a  circulation  of  air  about  the 
room  and  produce  a  swirling 
current  toward  the  outlet. 

The  diagrams,  Fig.  in,  il- 
lustrate the  principles  of  ventilation.  Were  the  outlet  to  be  made  simply 
a  register  in  the  outer  wall  of  the  building,  instead  of  serving  as  a 
ventilator,  it  would  act  as  a  cold  air  inlet,  the  heated  air  within  drawing 
in  more  and  more  by  displacement,  and  as  a  result  there  would  be  no 
real  ventilation.  If  the  natural  tendency  of  the  air  be  used,  and  the 


FIG. 


no. — GARAGE  VENTILATING 
ARRANGEMENT. 


FIG.  in.— VENTILATION  DIAGRAMS. 
220 


outlet  be  at  the  top  of  the  room,  as  in  many  of  the  older  systems  in 
present  use,  a  current  of  heated  air  will  be  set  up  in  an  upwardly  curving 
line  from  the  radiator  to  the  outlet;  the  heat  will  largely  go  to  waste, 
and  eddies  of  stagnant  air  will  accumulate  along  the 'floor.  This  is  what 
must  be  particularly  avoided  in  garage  work,  as  it  is  the  floor  line  which 
must  be  cleared  first.  By  reversing  the  natural  tendency,  wholly  or  in 
part,  and  placing  the  source  of  heat  upon  the  walls,  or  at  the  top  of  the 
room,  and  drawing  away  the  spent  air  and  gas  from  the  bottom,  uniform 
heat  distribution  is  secured  and  the  necessary  ventilation  effected. 


Handy  Garage  Contrivances. 

About  as  unhandy  a  job  as  a  man  can  "tackle*"  alone  is  to  try  to 
remove  an  automobile  body  without  suitable  appliances.  For  the  man 
with  a  small  garage  holding  only  one  or  two  machines,  and  even  for 

larger  establishments,  an  appara- 
tus as  illustrated  in  Fig.  112  will 
be  found  extremely  convenient. 
This  consists  merely  of  suitable 
rollers  suspended  in  bearings 
from  the  roof  on  floor  above  and 
having  a  rope  wound  around  it, 
long  enough  to  come  down 
below  the  vehicle  body.  The 
roller  at  one  end  has  four  suit- 
able handles  to  turn  it  by,  and 
the  supporting  timber  has  a  hole 
through  it  through  which  to 
pass  a  stop  pin  to  hold  it  wher- 
ever wanted. 

The  different  parts  are  clear- 
ly shown  in  the  illustration  (Fig. 
112)  and  the  construction  will  be 
readily  understood.  The  roller 
is  made  of  any  suitable  stick  of 
timber,  a  good,  straight  piece  of 
4x4  making  a  good  roller  by 
rounding  off  the  corners.  The 
short  pieces  S  S  at  each  end, 
forming  the  journals,  can  be  of 

one-half  inch  or  five-eighth  inch  cold  rolled  steel  shafting,  or  other  suit- 
able material,  and  can  just  as  well  run  in  a  couple  of  holes  bored  in  the 
2  inch  plank  or  scantling  T  T  forming  the  supporting  framework.  The 
handles  H  H  should  be  of  one-half  inch  gaspipe  and  about  12  inches  to 
14  inches  long  each  side  of  the  roller.  The  holding  pin  P  should  be 
of  three-eighth  inch  or  one-half  inch  gaspipe.  The  rope  R  R  should  be 
one-half  inch  to  three-fourth  inch,  according  to  the  weight  of  the  body 
to  be  handled. 

Two  of  these  rollers  will  be  required,  one  for  the  back  and  one  for 
the  forward  end  of  the  body.  With  these,  by  raising  one  end  a  little  at 

221 


THE  HORSELESS  AGE 

FIG.  112.— A  HOME  MADE  BODY  HOIST. 


a  time,  one  man  can  easily  remove  the  heaviest  automobile  body  with  very 
little  trouble. 

A  very  handy  short  jack  screw  to  use  in  cramped  places  can  be  made 
by  taking  a  hexagon  threaded  nut  and  a  square  or  hexagon  headed  cap 
screw  of  suitable  length.  By  using  a  thin  wrench,  such  as.  a  bicycle  or 
automobile  wrench,  to  hold  each  one,  it  is  possible  to  exert  a  very  great 
lifting  power  in  quite  a  cramped  place. 

For  handling  engines  and  other  quite  heavy  parts  of  an  automobile, 
a  self  locking  rope  tackle  block  is  a  very  handy  contrivance.  It  can  be 
fastened  to  a  hook  in  the  ceiling,  or  a  better  way  is  to  put  up  a  jib  or 


Y 


FIG.  113.— WALL  CRANE  FOR  HANDLING  ENGINES,  ETC. 


wall  crane  with  a  traveler  and  thus  make  it  available  over  quite  a  large 
space.  Fig.  113  illustrates  a  cheaply  made  contrivance  of  this  sort  which, 
while  it  will  have  to  be  somewhat  heavier  than  the  factory  made  kind 
for  the  same  capacity,  still  can  be  made  to  serve  a  very  useful  purpose 
at  comparatively  little  expense. 

As  shown  in  the  drawing,  the  mast  or  upright  is  made  of  a  suitable 
piece  of  gaspipe  (about  .3  inches  would  be  a  good  average  size).  At 
the  bottom  a  reducing  tee  is  screwed  on  and  a  piece  of  2  inch  or  2^/2 
inch  pipe  is  screwed  in  for  the  boom.  A  hole  is  drilled  near  the  outer 
end  of  the  boom  and  the  upper  end  of  the  mast  for  the  guy,  which  may 
be  a  piece  of  one-half  inch  mild  steel  rod  with  a  thread  on  each  end  on 
which  is  screwed  a  nut  to  hold  it  in  position.  At  the  upper  end  of  the 
mast  is  screwed  on  a  reducing  coupling  with  a  I  inch  nipple  screwed 
into  it  for  a  pivot.  The  bottom  pivot  is  made  in  the  same  manner,  as 


shown,  by  screwing  a  nipple  into  the  tee  and  then  putting  on  a  reducing 
coupling  and  a  i  inch  nipple.  The  upper  bearing  is  formed  of  a  piece 
of  three-eighths  inch  by  3  inch  flat  steel,  bent  as  shown,  and  belted  to 
the  wall  or  post  and  with  a  hole  in  the  projecting  end  to  receive  the 
piv.ot.  The  lower  bearing  is  made  in  the  same  manner  and  is  stiffened 
by  the  addition  of  a  bracket  brace  bolted  on  as  shown. 

The  sides  of  the  traveler  are  made  of  Hx2  ulcn  ^at  steel,  bent  and 
welded  as  shown,  two  pieces  like  this  being  required.  Two  grooved 
rollers  are  mounted  on  short  shafts,  as  shown  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
traveler.  The  two  sides  of  the  traveler  are  held  together  with  bolts  or 
rivets,  there  being  pieces  of  gaspipe  cut  to  a  suitable  length  and  placed 
between  the  sides,  the  bolts  or  rivets  passing  through  the  pieces  of  pipe. 
At  the  bottom  of  the  traveler  is  provided  a  ring  to  hook  the  tackle  block 
into.  A  self-locking  rope  tackle  is  all  right,  or  a  light  chain  block  of 
the  Weston  differential  type  may  be  used— anything  which  will  lift  and 
hold  the  load  wherever  required  is  all  right. 

With  this  device  it  is  possible  to  take  the  engine  out  of  the  rig,  swing 
it  around  and  place  it  on  a  workbench  or  elsewhere  without  any  very 
great  amount  of  labor,  and  by  making  the  boom  of  suitable  length  it 
will  serve  several  machines  at  once.  This  device  is  as  well  or  better 
adapted  to  a  regular  garage  man's  use  than  to  the  use  of  a  private  owner, 
although  it  is  applicable  wherever  it  is  desired  to  handle  machine  parts. 


Hints   on   Washing   Cars. 

Any  means  of  reducing  the  depreciation  in  value  of  a  motor  car  is 
worthy  of  the  consideration  of  the  motorist.  In  attempting  to  sell  a  used 
car,  the  owner  soon  finds  that  appearance  has  a  distinct  value,  measurable 
in  dollars  and  cents,  and  for  this  reason,  and  also  because  of  the  great 
personal  satisfaction  derived  from  the  ownership  of  a  well  kept  car,  it  is 
desirable  to  preserve,  as  far  as  possible,  the  original  high  finish  of  the 
varnish  and  of  the  polished  metal  parts.  To  do  this,  the  car  must  be 
washed  carefully,  as  careless  and  improper  washing  may  do  as  much  to 
ruin  the  appearance  of  a  car  as  neglect. 

Before  attempting  to  rub  any  dust  or  mud  off  the  varnish,  it  should 
be  gone  over  thoroughly  with  a  stream  of  water  from  a  hose  without 
nozzle.  If  too  much  pressure  is  applied  there  is  danger  of  bespattering 
certain  parts  of  the  mechanism  which  should  be  kept  dry,  and  also  of 
scratching  the  varnish  by  driving  small  particles  of  sand  over  it  too  rapidly. 
When  it  is  impossible  to  remove  any  more  dirt  in  this  way,  a  sponge  may 
be  used,  which  should  be  kept  constantly  soaked  with  water,  by  directing 
the  stream  upon  it  as  it  is  moved  over  the  paint.  If  there  is  a  consider- 
able accumulation  of  mud,  as,  for  instance,  after  operating  the  car  over 
dirt  roads  on  a  rainy  day,  the  sponge  should  be  carefully  rinsed  after  each 
few  strokes,  so  that  there  can  be  no  danger  of  grit  clinging  to  it.  Every 
particle  of  dirt  should  be  removed  before  the  chamois  is  applied  to  wipe 
off  the  water  which  remains  clinging  to  the  varnish.  The  chamois  should 
be  carefully  rinsed  and  wrung  dry  before  it  is  applied,  and  should  also  be 
rinsed  before  the  water  which  it  absorbs  in  wiping  the  car  is  wrung  out, 
in  order  to  prevent  accumulation  of  grit. 

223 


It  is  not  considered  the  best  practice  to  use  any  sort  of  soap  or  hot 
water,  as  both  tend  to  dull  the  finish  of  the  varnish,  but  their  use  may 
occasionally  be  permissible. 

In  the  case  of  some  automobiles,  oil  is  likely  to  reach  certain  parts  of 
the  body  or  running  gear.  This  should  be  removed  with  gasoline  (if  the 
water  will  not  carry  it  away)  before  the  sponge  is  applied.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  that  no  oil  or  grease  is  touched  by  the  sponge  or  chamois, 
as  in  that  event  it  may  be  transferred  to  some  other  part  of  the  car,  thus 
still  further  injuring  the  general  appearance.  Furthermore,  with  a  greasy 
chamois  it  is  not  possible  to  wipe  the  surface  dry. 

For  certain  cars,  parts  of  which  cannot  be  reached  with  a  sponge,  a 
long,  narrow  back  brush  with  soft  hair  filling  is  often  found  to  be  a  handy 
instrument  for  removing  accumulations  of  dirt.  The  brush  should  be  used 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  sponge.  There  are  now  a  number  of  handy 
washing  appliances  on  the  market. 

It  is  very  bad  practice  to  rub  over  the  varnish  with  kerosene  or  any 
other  oil,  to  make  it  shine,  as  in  a  short  time  the  finish  will  be  ruined,  both 
because  of  the  action  of  the  oil  on  the  varnish  and  because  of  the  extra 
accumulation  of  dust  upon  the  varnished  parts,  which  is  held  by  the  oil  and 
is  not  easily  removed  in  washing.  The  beautiful  finish  of  expensive  cars 
is  frequently  ruined  by  the  use  of  soap  and  sponges  in  which  there  are 
tiny  bits  of  coral  or  shells.  With  the  proper  care  the  finish  of  an  auto- 
mobile should  retain  its  lustre,  like  that  of  a  piano,  for  several  seasons, 
unless  it  is  marred  by  some  unavoidable  accident,  but  many  cars  look 
dull  and  dead  after  a  few  months'  use,  owing,  in  many  instances,  to  the 
needless  use  of  strong  alkali  soaps.  It  is  a  question  whether  it  is  not 
wiser  to  use  less  soap  and  more  of  some  sort  of  oil  or  varnish  food, 
treating  the  varnish  by  some  such  method  as  employed  by  piano  and  fur- 
niture dealers  to  enliven  the  finish  of  pianos  or  furniture.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  it  is  unnecessary  to  use  soap  on  the  body,  except  at  places  that  have 
become  greasy,  and  then  only  in  limited  quantities.  When  soap  is  used 
every  trace  of  it  must  be  rinsed  off  and  the  surface  thoroughly  dried  by 
rubbing  with  a  soft,  dry  chamois.  Under  no  conditions  should  a  car  be 
washed  or  soap  used  on  any  varnished  surface  which  is  hot,  as  on  the 
hood  or  parts  adjacent  to  the  motor  immediately  after  use,  as  the  varnish 
is  softened  by  the  heat  and  is  easily  ruined  when  in  this  condition.  Cars 
should  never  be  allowed  to  stand  in  a  muddy  condition  until  the  mud 
becomes  thoroughly  dried  on,  for  its  removal  then  becomes  very  difficult 
and  permanent  damage  ft>  the  finish  may  even  result. 


Cleaning  Automobile  Tops. 

Since  genuine  leather  is  not  used  for  automobile  tops,  except  on  small 
electrics,  the  following  instructions  apply  to  Pantasote  tops  and  to  tops 
of  similar  materials.  For  cleaning  genuine  Pantasote  tops  proceed  as 
follows : 

(A)  Unless  the  outside  has  been  subjected  to  some  foreign  stains,  the 
ordinary  collection  of  dust  and  dirt  should  be  removed  with  a  sponge 
and  pure  water.  Impure  water  containing  a  large  percentage  of  salts  is 

224 


apt  to  leave  a  white  deposit  on  the  material,  which  will  have  to  be  removed 
with  a  second  application  of  pure  water.  In  most  locations  the  city  water 
is  satisfactory.  This  treatment  can  be  applied  occasionally  while  the  car 
is  being  washed  by  turning  a  hose  on  the  deck  of  the  top  and  rubbing 
with  a  sponge. 

(B)  If  the  soil  is  from  grease  or  other  stains  which  treatment  "A" 
will  not  remove,  go  over  the  top  once  with  a  sponge  and  the  suds  of  some 
pure  soap,  and  a  second  time  with  only  water  to  remove  all  traces  of  the 
soap. 

(C)  This  is  a  treatment  of  the  outside  to  bring  out  the  lustre  and  need 
not  be  resorted  to  until  the  top  is  very  old.     It  involves  the  application 
of  a  resurfacing  liquid  to  be  used  as  a  last  resort.     Give  the  outside  of 
the  top  treatment  "B,"  and  when  thoroughly  dry  apply  a  very  thin  coat- 
ing of  a  renovating  liquid  in  same  color  as  the  top,  allowing  same  to  dry 
thoroughly  before  the  top  is  used.     For  this  renovator  it  is  best  to  use 
an  article  made  especially  for  Pantasote,  as  some  of  the  liquids  offered  as 
dressing  for  leather  carriage  tops  contain  ingredients  which  improve  the 
appearance  when  applied,  yet  shorten  the  life.     Preparations  of  this  kind 
are  to  be  obtained  from  carriage  supply  dealers. 

(D)  To  clean  the  inside  of  a  Pantasote  top,  where  the  accumulation  of 
dust  and  dirt  cannot  be  removed  with  a  stiff  brush,  remove  the  top  and 
place  it  on  the  ground  inverted.  Apply  a  fairly  stiff  brush  and  the  suds 
of  some  pure  soap,  and  go  over  a  second  time  with  water  only  to  remove 
traces  of  the  soap. 

Gasoline  or  other  similar  cleaning  liquids,  while  not  permanently  injuri- 
ous to  the  interlining  gum,  should  be  avoided,  as  they  only  force  the  stain 
further  into  the  cloth,  where  it  cannot  be  removed.  By  way  of  explaining 
this  it  might  be  said  that  gasoline  and  other  cleaning  liquids  clean  cloth- 
ing, etc.,  by  driving  the  stain  completely  through  the  fabric,  but  in  top 
goods  the  interlining  gum  will  not  permit  of  a  complete  penetration. 

To  clean  the  outside  of  leather  substitutes  other  than  Pantasote  use 
treatments  "A,"  "B"  or  "C,"  mentioned  above,  and  for  the  inside  treat- 
ment "D" ;  but  under  no  circumstances  use  gasoline  or  other  hydrocarbon 
liquids,  as  they  rot  the  interlining  gum,  deprive  the  material  of  its  water- 
proof qualities  and  cause  the  fabrics  to  separate. 

Materials  with  rubber  on  the  outside  are  as  a  rule  grained  to  imitate 
leather.  For  the  outside  use  treatments  "A"  or  "B."  Treatment  "C"  is 
not  recommended  on  this  class  of  material.  For  the  inside  use  treatment 
"D."  Avoid  the  use  of  gasoline  and  oils  on  either  side,  as  both  are 
injurious. 

Mackintosh  materials  have  fabrics  exposed  on  both  sides,  and  include 
materials  known  as  "mohairs,"  etc.  The  ways  of  cleaning  them  are  unfor- 
tunately very  limited.  Gasoline  and  other  cleaning  liquids  cannot  be 
used,  as  they  ruin  the  interlining  gum,  causing  the  fabrics  to  separate, 
and  only  serve  to  drive  the  stain  in.  If  the  application  of  a  stiff  brush 
does  not  produce  the  desired  results  use  treatment  "D"  on  both  inside 
and  outside.  A  surface  application  of  dye  to  bring  back  the  color  of 
fabrics  does  not  seem  to  produce  a  result  which  is  proof  against  the  fading 
actions  of  sunlight  and  water. 

225 


Keeping  Wind   Shields  Clean. 

The  clouding  of  the  glass  of  a  wind  shield  when  a  car  is  being  used 
in  misty  or  rainy  weather  is  not  only  very  annoying  but  may  involve  grave 
danger,  as  it  seriously  interferes  with  the  control  of  the  car.  Some  adjust- 
able shields  are  so  arranged  that  the  upper  section  may  be  raised  away 
from  the  lower  section,  and  an  unobstructed  vision  space  be  left  between 
them,  through  which,  however,  the  rain  cannot  drive  on  account  of  the 
protection  afforded  by  the  position  of  the  upper  section. 

Frequent  wiping  off  with  a  cloth  of  the  portion  of  the  glass  imme- 
diately in  front  of  the  operator  is  the  obvious  remedy  for  this  condition, 
and  an  attachment  applicable  to  wind  shields  has  been  devised  whereby  by 
the  moving  of  a  handle  a  wiper  is  drawn  over  the  surface  of  the  glass, 
thus  cleaning  it. 

The  clouding  effect  of  moisture  which  destroys  the  transparency  of  the 
shield  is  due  to  the  presence  upon  its  surface  of  minute  drops  of  water, 
which  act  as  convex  lenses  and  by  their  irregular  refractive  effect  prevent 
clear  vision.  An  application  to  the  front  surface  of  a  thin  coating  of  some 
transparent  material  which  will  prevent  the  adhesion  of  the  moisture,  or 
will  cause  it  to  spread  in  an  even  film  rather  than  collecting  in  drops,  will 
preserve  the  transparent  qualities  of  the  glass. 

Preparations  designed  to  accomplish  this  result  are  upon  the  market. 
in  the  form  of  paste,  sticks  or  liquids,  the  usual  method  of  use  being  to 
apply  the  compound  and  then  wipe  the  glass  surface,  leaving  a  very  thin 
film  of  the  material  over  the  glass.  Such  compounds  are  also  used  to 
prevent  the  misting  or  frosting  of  store  windows,  eyeglasses,  etc.,  and 
may  be  used  advantageously  upon  wind  shields. 

Common  bar  soap,  rubbed  over  the  front  of  the  glass  and  then  rubbed 
to  a  very  thin  film  with  a  cloth,  is  sometimes  found  effective  for  a  limited 
length  of  time,  and  preparations  containing  glycerine  are  also  somewhat 
used.  All  these  remedies  are  but  temporary  in  their  effects,  requiring 
periodical  reapplication. 

For  cleaning  and  brightening  the  glass  of  the  shield  from  the  film  of 
dust  which  accumulates  upon  it,  alcohol  applied  with  a  soft  cloth  is  very 
good.  Water  containing  a  small  quantity  of  aqua  ammonia  is  also  used, 
and,  indeed,  any  window  cleaning  substance  which  will  not  scratch  the 
glass  may  be  employed. 

The  celluloid  lights  in  the  storm  front  and  side  curtains,  which  are 
often  kept  rolled  up,  should  be  protected  from  becoming  scratched  by  so 
rolling  a  piece  of  soft  fabric  with  the  celluloid  that  the  latter  may  be 
kept  from  contact  with  buttons,  fasteners  and  other  sharp  parts  of  the 
curtains. 


Fire   Precautions. 

The  following  suggestions  may  be  of  assistance: 

Don't  allow  smoking  about  the  garage. 

Use  nothing  but  electric  lights  protected  against  accidental  breakage 
of  the  bulbs.  Where  electric  lighting  service  is  not  obtainable  use  a 
pocket  electric  flash-lamp  when  entering  the  garage  at  night. 

226 


Keep  no  unprotected  supplies  of  gasoline  about  the  building. 

Be  careful  in  lighting  the  lamps,  and  be  sure  to  extinguish  them  when 
leaving  the  car  at  night. 

Allow  no  gasoline  to  be  spilled  either  from  a  leaking  fuel  system  or 
through  carelessness  in  filling  the  tank.  It  is  best  to  shut  off  the  carburetor 
supply  at  night. 

Do  not  permit  oil  or  oily  waste  to  accumulate  on  the  garage  floor  or  in 
the  under  pan  of  the  car. 

Be  careful  in  the  storing  of  carbide  and  in  the  disposition  of  the  waste 
from  gas  generators.  See  that  no  wood  or  other  combustible  substances 
are  in  contact  with  the  exhaust  piping  or  muffler  of  the  car. 

Keep  an  abundant  supply  of  dry  sand  in  pails  about  the  building  for 
fire  purposes,  and  use  this  in  preference  to  water  on  a  gasoline  fire. 

Install  one  or  more  chemical  extinguishers  in  an  accessible  place,  and 
see  that  they,  are  kept  freshly  charged.  If  the  garage  is  not  heated,  use 
extinguishers  which  are  not  affected  by  low  temperatures. 


Preparing  Automobiles  for  Shipment. 

(F.    E.    WATTS.) 

The  material  for  this  article  was  gathered  from  the  shipping  depart- 
ments of  about  a  dozen  automobile  factories,  including  some  of  the  largest 
American  makers.  It  represents  the  experience  obtained  from  shipping 
thousands  of  machines  to  all  parts  of  the  world  by  the  men  who  had 
charge  of  the  packing  and  shipping  and  shouldered  the  blame  if  anything 
went  wrong. 

The  various  methods  employed  are  largely  natural  outgrowths  from 
those  first  tried,  and  in  only  a  few  cases  have  efforts  been  made  to  cut 
the  cost. 

A  large  touring  car  is  a  very  bulky  article  to  ship,  and  when  finished  as 
usual  at  present  requires  very  careful  packing  to  prevent  any  scratching. 

While  primarily  intended  for  private  owners,  it  is  hoped  that  this 
article  will  be  of  some  use  to  more  experienced  shippers,  as  it  will  give 
them  a  glimpse  of  methods  different  from  their  own.  For  convenience  in 
treating,  shipments  will  be  divided  into  three  groups :  Domestic  shipments 
not  crated,  crated  domestic  shipments,  and  foreign  or  boxed  shipments. 
DOMESTIC  SHIPMENTS  NOT  CRATED. 

If  there  is  any  one  point  upon  which  shippers  agree  it  is  that  crating 
should  be  avoided  wherever  possible.  The  actual  factory  cost  of  a  crate 
is  in  the  neighborhood  of  $25,  and  a  private  owner  would  ordinarily  have 
to  pay  considerably  more  to  get  one  made.  The  saving  in  freight  rates 
between  points  in  the  United  States  of  crated  over  uncrated  automobiles 
is  not  sufficient  to  cover  this  cost,  except  in  a  few  special  instances,  which 
will  be  mentioned  under  the  next  heading. 

It  is  the  ordinary  practice  in  most  factories  to  ship  machines  uncrated 
— whether  a  single  machine  or  a  lot  is  being  sent  to  any  point  where  they 
can  go  without  transfer.  From  large  cities  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  get 
through  cars  or  half  cars  to  most  parts  of  the  country,  but  in  the  smaller 
places  this  is  more  difficult.  Wherever  the  auto  must  be  transferred  from 

227 


car  to  car  it  should  invariably  be  crated,  for  it  will  seldom  be  properly 
handled  while  changing,  or  properly  secured  in  its  new  quarters.  I  have 
seen  finely  painted  show  jobs  come  back  to  the  factory  looking  more  as 
if  they  had  gone  through  a  railroad  wreck  than  a  mere  transfer  from  car 
to  car.  Of  course,  the  railroad  is  responsible  for  this  damage,  but  payment 
is  usually  delayed  for  eight  or  nine  months,  and  even  when  received  is 
poor  solace  for  delay  and  annoyance  while  on  a  tour. 

In  preparing  a  machine  for  shipment,  the  gasoline  tank  and  carburetor 
are  carefully  drained.  Then,  if  the  car  is  water  cooled  and  the  weather 
is  cold,  or  likely  to  become  so,  the  cooling  system  must  be  emptied,  par- 
ticular care  being  taken  to  get  all  the  water  out  of  the  engine  jackets. 
This  last  caution  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized,  for  instances  have 
become  known  of  several  manufacturers  who  have  suffered  from  the 
cracking  of  water  jackets  by  neglecting  this  precaution.  The  machine 
.should  now  be  pushed  to  its  proper  place  in  the  car,  and  the  emergency 
brakes  firmly  set.  All  four  wheels  should  then  be  secured  to  the  floor 
of  the  car.  Fig.  114  shows  the  method  which  seems  to  provide  the  most 
secure  fastening  with  the  least  work.  Pieces  A,  B,  D  and  E  are  2  by  6 
inch  planks,  long  enough  to  have  about  the  relation  to  the  wheel  shown. 


FIG.    114.— METHOD   OF   BLOCKING. 


They  are  fastened  to  each  other  and  to  the  floor  with  twenty-penny  nails. 
The  construction  A,  B  is  of  course  placed  at  the  front  of  the  front 
wheels,  and  to  the  rear  of  the  rear  wheels.  To  secure  the  wheels  from 
jumping  upward,  take  four  pieces  of  burlap  about  2  feet  by  15  inches, 
and  fold  them  lengthwise  to  form  straps  about  2}/2  inches  wide,  as  shown 
at  F  (Fig.  114).  These  should  now  be  placed  over  the  rim  of  the  wheel 
and  fastened  by  pieces  C,  which  are  nailed  to  the  floor,  special  care  being 
taken  to  get  pieces  C  as  close  to  the  tire  as  possible,  and  to  get  burlap 
F  very  light.  This  last  object  may  be  accomplished  by  securing  the  end 
of  the  burlap  toward  the  middle  of  the  machine,  taking  the  outer  piece 
C,  driving  the  nails  through  it  so  as  to  project  about  one-half  inch,  and 
fastening  the  burlap  to  two  of  these  nails  so  that  it  rests  against  C,  and 
is  fairly  tight  when  the  points  of  the  nails  just  touch  the  floor  of  the 
car.  Driving  the  nails  home  will  stretch  the  burlap  very  tightly. 

Rope  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of  burlap.     It  is  fastened  to  .the  floor 
by  staples,  and  one  turn   is  taken   around   a   spoke,  the  spoke  and   rim 

228 


being  covered  with  burlap.  In  a  number  of  cases  triangular  blocks  like 
D  E  are  used  at  both  front  and  rear  of  the  wheels  with  perfect  satisfaction. 

Fig.  115  shows  a  very  satisfactory  though  somewhat  elaborate  arrange- 
ment for  blocking  wheels.  H,  I  and  J  are  sawed  to  fit  the  tire,  I  being 
sawed  at  right  angles  to  the  side  of  the  board,  and  J  and  H  on  a  45 
degree  angle.  Block  C,  which  is  composed  of  boards  E,  F,  G  fastened 
together,  is  separate,  while  block  D  is  secured  to  side  boards  K. 

In  fastening  wheels  with  this  arrangement,  a  strap  of  burlap  is  first 
secured  as  in  Fig.  114,  except  that  blocks  C  are  placed  farther  from  the 
tire,  and  the  burlap  is  left  slightly  loose.  Block  C  is  now  placed  in  posi- 
tion, and  block  D  with  side  boards  K  forced  in  place.  K  and  C  are 
then  nailed  together,  and  the  boards  K  draw  the  burlap  tight.  Lastly 
the  entire  construction  is  nailed  to  the  floor. 

Having  secured  the  wheels,  it  is  well  to  look  the  car  over  carefully 
and  see  that  there  are  no  parts,  such  as  tonneau  doors,  which  may  work 
loose  and  swing  or  shake.  It  is  common  practice  to  leave  lamps  on  their 


K 

E     / 

\                H 

F     | 

1                ' 

G     \ 

/                J 

K 

THE  HORSELESS  *3E  A 

FIG.  115.— TROUGH  FOR  HOLDING  WHEELS. 

brackets,  although  they  are  sometimes  packed  in  boxes,  and  these  nailed 
to  the  floor  of  the  car. 

If  it  is  desired  to  protect  the  machine  from  dirt,  a  cloth  cover  may 
be  thrown  over  it  and  tied  in  place,  or  if  one  has  no  cover,  heavy  wrap- 
ping paper  may  be  used,  which  is  even  better  but  more  troublesome  to 
apply. 

If  only  a  single  machine  is  being  sent,  the  part  of  the  car  containing 
it  should  be  separated  from  the  remainder  by  boarding  across  with  i  inch 
boards.  A  machine  packed  this  way  is  about  as  secure  from  injury  as 
is  possible  in  freight  shipments. 

The  manner  of  crating  varies  with  the  kind  of  machine;  a  heavy  tour- 
ing car  requires  a  much  stronger  crate  than  a  runabout,  not  only  because 
of  its  greater  weight,  but  also  on  account  of  its  larger  bulk. 

For  a  touring  car  a  crate  such  as  is  shown  in  Figs.  116,  117  and  118 
should  prove  satisfactory.  It  is  constructed  as  follows :  A  top  and  bottom 
are  made  as  in  Fig.  116;  the  frame  is  of  2  by  4  joists,  covered  with  I 
inch  boards  about  12  inches  wide.  These  project  I  inch  beyond  the  frame 
all  the  way  around,  so  that  the  side  boards  will  come  flush.  These  frames 


229 


should  be  made  at  least  6  inches  longer  and  wider  than  the  automobile 
to  be  shipped.  The  bottom  should  now  be  fitted  with  two  beams  like  C 
in  Fig.  117,  the  inner  edges  of  which  must  be  the  proper  distance  apart 
to  fit  tightly  against  the  shoulders  on  the  wheel  spindles.  The  car  may 
now  be  wheeled  into  position  on  this  bottom,  blocked  up,  and  all  four 
wheels  removed,  then  gradually  lowered  until  the  spindles  rest  upon  beams 
C.  The  spindles  are  covered  with  burlap  and  fastened  to  C  by  clamps  E 
made  of  i^x^  inch  wrought  iron,  and  secured  to  the  beams  by  six  3^x4 
inch  lag  screws.  The  eight  vertical  corner  boards  may  now  be  nailed  to 
the  bottom,  also  the  adjoining  boards  on  the  sides. 

The  springs  should  be  compressed  and  2x4  pieces  cut  the  proper  length 
to  go  across  the  crate  inside,  fastened  to  hold  them  in  compression. 


FIG.  1 16.— BOARD  CRATE  FOR  DOMES- 
TIC SHIPMENT. 


E_HOfiSELES3  AOF 


FIG.   117. — ONE  CORNER  OF  BOTTOM 
FOR  CRATE  SHOWN  IN  FIG.  116. 


A  cover  or  wrapping  paper  should  now  be  placed  over  the  car  after 
tying  tonneau  doors,  etc.  For  fastening  the  wheels  eight  straps  like  that 
shown  in  Fig.  114  should  be  provided,  also  four  three-eighth  inch  bolts 
long  enough  to  pass  through  the  hubs,  and  two  of  the  straps  with  a 
couple  of  inches  to  spare.  The  wheels  may  be  secured  to  boards  at  the 
middle  of  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  crate,  as  shown  in  Fig.  118,  or  they 
may  be  fastened  underneath  the  car,  which  is  probably  the  better  position. 

The  remaining  side  and  end  boards  can  now  be  nailed  to  the  bottom, 
and  the  top  dropped  in,  and  the  sides  and  ends  nailed  to  it,  which  com- 
pletes the  crate,  excepting  the  diagonal  braces  of  1x6  inch  boards,  and 
skids  F  F  made  of  2x6  inch  planks.  These  skids  can  perhaps  be  best 


secured  by  nailing  to  the  beams  on  which  the  car  rests,  after  the  position 
of  these  beams  has  been  determined. 

One  manufacturer  of  runabouts  uses  a  crate  similar  to  that  shown  in 
Fig.  123.  Pieces  A,  B,  F  are  2x4  inches;  corner  posts  E  are  4x4  inches, 
notched  at  the  lower  end  so  that  the  space  between  C  and  G  is  2  inches. 
Beams  C  are  4x4  inches,  and  go  the  entire  length  of  the  crate.  Blocks  D 
are  also  4x4,  and  have  holes  for  the  axle  spindles.  They  are  secured  to 
C  by  one-half  inch  lag  screws.  The  wheels  are  secured  to  the  sides  as  in 
the  crate  just  described.  The  bottom  has  only  one  diagonal  and  one  cross 
brace. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  steering  column  has  been  removed,  and  the 
upper  part  of  the  seat  reversed.  By  doing  this  from  9  inches  to  a  foot 
may  be  saved  in  the  height  of  the  case.  In  shipping  between  certain  points 
there  is  an  advantage  in  crating  a  runabout  in  this  manner,  even  though 
it  is  possible  to  get  through  cars.  For  example,  from  Detroit  west  the 
freight  charge  for  uncrated  cars  is  for  5,000  pounds  at  first  class  rate,  no 
matter  what  the  weight  of  the  machine,  while  for  a  runabout  crated  as  in 
Fig.  123  the  charge  is  for  4,000  pounds  from  Detroit  to  Chicago  and  for 


THE   HORSELESS  »CE 

FIG.   118. — ADDITIONAL  DETAIL  OF   BOARD  CRATE. 


the  actual  weight  west  from  Chicago.    A  crated  car  usually  weighs  about 
one  and  a  half  times  as  much  as  the  uncrated  machine. 

Some  very  light  runabouts,  weighing  about  900  pounds,  are  shipped 
in  crates  made  by  covering  a  2x4  inch  frame  with  I  inch  boards  for  the 
floor,  and  fastening  four  small  horses  to  this  floor  for  the  axles  to  rest  on. 
The  remainder  of  the  crate  is  built  of  about  1x6  inch  boards. 

For  all  this  work  a  fair  grade  of  white  pine  is  good  wood.    Good  white 
spruce,  or  even  the  best  quality  of  white  fir,  is  also  serviceable,  but  beware 
of  the  grade  of  wood  ordinarily  used  in  rough  boarding  buildings,  as  it 
splits  at  the  ends  too  easily  to  make  good  crates. 
FOREIGN   SHIPMENTS. 

For  shipping  by  steamer  machines  must  be  tightly  boxed,  and  this  box 
should  be  strong  enough  to  withstand  being  lifted  by  a  crane  from  a  chain 
wrapped  around  the  middle.  Also  it  must  be  strong  enough  to  hold 
freight  of  all  kinds  piled  on  top. 

Manufacturers  shipping  to  foreign  countries  usually  make  a  box  sim- 
ilar to  the  crate  shown  in  Fig.  118,  except  that  there  are  no  spaces  between 
the  boards,  and  that  2x4  inch  pieces  are  put  across  from  side  to  side 
wherever  possible.  One  and  one-quarter  inch  band  iron  nearly  one-six- 


231 


\ 


FIG.  119. — STRAP  FOR  WHEEL. 


teenth  inch  thick  is  wrapped  around  the  box  in  several  places.  One  shipper 
advises  the  use  of  not  less  than  i%  inch  boards  in  any  ocean  shipment. 

A  prominent  Eastern  firm  in  shipping  electric  carriages  to  Europe 
makes  its  boxes  of  two  layers  of  I  inch  boards  with  sheathing  paper 

between  them.  One  maker  of  run- 
abouts with  side  springs  removes 
wheels  and  axles,  and  fastens  the 
machine  to  the  box  by  these  springs. 
The  wheels  and  axles  are  packed  in 
a  separate  box,  so  the  total  space 
taken  is  less  than  if  all  were  in 
one  box;  as  steamer  shipments  go  by 
bulk  and  not  by  weight,  this  pays. 

In  some  instances  it  is  cheaper  to  remove  the  body  and  steering  posts, 
and  to  pack  the  body  in  a  separate  box.  This  is  almost  always  so  with 
limousine  bodies. 

In  shipping  private  machines  various  methods  have  been  tried,  includ- 
ing solid  boxes  and  boxes  with  hinged  sides  or  ends,  but  the  method  which 
is  most  commonly  used  at  present  is  to  make  a  knock-down  box  which 
may    be    laid    flat    when 
packed  away,  and  so  cost 
little     for     storage,     and 
can   be    reassembled    for 
the  return  trip.     Details 
of  such  a  box  are  shown 
in  Figs.  120,  121  and  122. 

Fig.   122  also  shows  the       

construction   of   an   end, 

which  is  exactly  similar          FIG.  120. — BOTTOM  FOR  EXPORT  Box. 
to  a  side.     The  bottom, 

Fig.  120,  is  made  of  2  inch  matched  planks  nailed  to  the  frame,  which  is 
of  2x8  inch  planks,  with  thirty-penny  nails.  The  top,  shown  in  Fig.  121, 
is  of  i  inch  matched  boards  with  a  framework  of  2x4  inches.  Sides  and 
ends,  Fig.  122,  are  also  of  I  inch  matched  boards  with  1x6  inch  cleats 
and  1x8  inch  diagonal  braces.  These  parts  are  fastened  together  by  heavy 
screws  to  form  the  complete  box.  Large  blocks  inside  the  bottom  frame- 
work serve  to  hold  the  wheel  spindles.  The  bottom  is  of  course  fitted 
with  skids,  as  in  Fig.  118. 

These  boxes  are  being  successfully  used  without  band  iron,  but  it  seems 


FIG.  i2i.— TOP  FOR  EXPORT  Box. 


FIG.  122.— SIDE  FOR  EXPORT  Box. 


232 


they  would  be  safer  with  band  iron,  and  with  2x4  inch  uprights  in  each 
corner  bolted  to  the  sides  and  ends.  The  cost  of  building  such  a  box  is 
not  far  from  $50,  counting  materials  and  labor. 

As  to  freight  rates,  they  vary  from  day  to  day,  and  quotations  will  have 
to  be  got  for  the  exact  time  of  shipment.  All  quotations  are  made  on  a 
bulk  of  40  cubic  feet. 

A  crate  for  a  touring  car  having  106  inch  wheel  base  and  good  sized 


FIG.    123. — CRATE   FOR   RUNABOUT. 


tonneau  body,  which  was  recently  measured,  was  6  feet  by  6  feet  by  12 
feet  7  inches,  or  453  cubic  feet. 

It  would  seem  that  if  one  were  to  ship  his  machine  often,  either  at 
home  or  abroad,  it  would  pay  to  have  a  box  similar  to  that  just  described 
made,  and  have  it  sent  by  freight,  knocked  down,  to  the  place  from  which 
the  machine  was  to  be  shipped  whenever  it  was  desired  to  ship  it  home 
from  a  tour. 

In  sending  cars  to  Mexico  manufacturers  often  take  them  almost  com- 
pletely apart,  as  the  duty  is  very  much  less  on  parts  than  on  complete 
machines. 


233 


REPAIR     SUGGESTIONS. 


There  is  a  considerable'  class  of  motor  car  users  who  become  per- 
sonally interested  in  their  cars,  from  a  mechanical  standpoint,  and  take  a 
certain  pleasure  in  making  simple  repairs  upon  them,  in  their  own  stables. 
Even  those  who  do  not  care  for  this  sort  of  thing  will  find  it  for  their 
interest  at  least  to  know,  in  a  general  way,  how  certain  repairs  should  be 
executed,  in  order  properly  to  instruct  the  mechanics  who  are  to  do  the 
work,  as  time  and  money  may  frequently  be  saved  by  so  doing. 

It  is  impossible  fully  to  cover  the  subject  of  repairs,  as  the  breakages 
and  derangements  which  may  befall  a  car  are  multifarious  in  the  extreme, 
but  there  are  certain  common  ills  to'  which  automobiles  are  subject, 
through  accident  or  the  effects  of  long  and  hard  usage,  the  remedies  for 
which  every  motorist  ought  to  know.  In  this  chapter  certain  of  the  fre- 
quently required  repair  operations  are  explained  in  language  which  is 
intended  to  be  clear  and  concise. 


Tool   Box   Equipment  of  a  Car. 

The  tools  which  the  motorist  must  carry  in  his  car  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes,  viz.,  those  which  are  used  for  ordinary  adjustments  and 
those  which  are  used  for  extraordinary  repairs.  By  "ordinary  adjust- 
ments" is  meant  the  tightening  of  the  various  screws  and  nuts,  as  they 
work  loose  through  the  jar  of  driving;  taking  up  wear  in  bearings,  etc. 
The  motorist  sometimes  also  finds  it  necessary  to  repair  on  the  road  some 
break  which  may  either  seriously  interfere  with  the  successful  operation 
of  the  car  or  prevent  its  running  at  all,  and  to  resort  to  "makeshift" 
measures  in  order  to  reach  his  destination.  When  this  occurs,  he  who 
is  the  better  equipped  with  carefully  selected  tools  and  repair  supplies  is, 
of  course,  the  better  able  to  cope  with  the  situation. 

With  the  idea  of  reducing  the  number  of  individual  implements  in  the 
repair  outfit,  a  considerable  number  of  so  called  combination  tools  have 
been  put  upon  the  market.  These  usually  take  the  form  of  a  combined 
screwdriver  and  bicycle  wrench,  a  combined  pipe  and  nut  wrench,  etc. 
This  type  of  tool  is  usually  not  satisfactory,  being,  for  instance,  neither 
a  very  good  screwdriver  nor  a  very  good  wrench,  and  is  likely  to  become 
useless  prematurely  through  the  breaking  or  wearing  away  of  some  vital 
part. 

It  is  also  true  that  it  is  very  often  necessary  to  use  two  tools  at  the 
same  time,  as,  for  instance,  when  a  lock  nut  is  run  down  a  set  screw. 
In  this  case  a  combination  tool  is  useless,  and  the  necessity  for  carrying 
both  screwdriver  and  monkey  wrench  for  such  cases  as  this  makes  it 
superfluous.  It  is,  however,  only  fair  to  state  that  there  are  certain  com- 
bination tools  which,  for  the  lighter  kinds  of  work,  are  exceedingly  handy. 

234 


The  awl  with  a  hollow  handle  for  holding  a  number  of  variously  shaped 
points  which  can  be  fitted  to  it  is  one  of  these.  Another  is  the  screw- 
driver with  a  number  of  interchangeable  blades.  If  strongly  made,  it  may 
obviate  the  necessity  of  carrying  two  or  more  of  these  implements  to  fit 
the  different  size  screws.  There  arc,  too,  wrenches  which  serve  equally 
well  for  tightening  nuts  as  for  holding  round  rods  or  pipe,  but,  as  practice 
has  shown,  there  is  nothing  better  suited  to  accomplish  the  first  of  these 
than  a  monkey  wrench  with  parallel  jaws,  and  no  better  pipe  wrench  than 
one  specially  made  for  the  purpose.  A  tool  which,  with  the  same  jaws, 
will  either  hold  a  pipe  or  turn  a  nut,  provided  it  does  the  first  satis- 
factorily, is  more  likely  to  cut  off  the  corners  of  a  nut,  thereby  injuring 
it  to  a  degree,  than  is  a  wrench  with  smooth  parallel  jaws. 

To  the  first  of  the  two  classes  of  tools  herein  discussed  (those  for 
ordinary  adjustments)  belong  the  monkey  wrench,  screwdriver,  special 
spanners,  etc.,  and  possibly  the  pliers. 

Certain  manufacturers  equip  their  cars  with  telescoping  socket 
wrenches.  These  are  nothing  but  short  lengths  of  steel  tubes  formed 
on  each  end  to  fit  the  various  nuts  and  one  within  another.  Two  or 
three  holes  are  drilled  through  each  of  these  tubes,  into  which  is  fitted 
a  round  rod  which  provides  the  necessary  leverage  for  handling  the  nuts. 
This  rod  when  not  in  use  is  slipped  within  the  inside  tube.  This  form 
of  wrench  has  been  found  very  useful;  the  objection  that  it  requires  the 
picking  up  of  another  tool  if  a  different  sized  nut  is  to  be  worked  on 
being  more  than  offset  by  its  many  advantages  over  the  monkey  wrench 
in  any  case  where  its  use  is  possible.  The  socket  wrench  need  not  be 
removed  from  the  nut  at  the  end  of  each  stroke,  and  as  it  fits  on  all  sides 
of  the  nut,  there  is  no  danger  of  injuring  the  corners.  It  is  especially 
useful  in  removing  spark  plugs  from  an  engine,  as  they  are  held  by  it 
when  out  and  can  be  cleaned  and  adjusted  the  more  readily. 

A  development  of  this  type  of  wrench  is  that  which  is  supplied  with 
a  universal  joint  and  a  set  of  interchangeable  sockets.  With  this  attach- 
ment the  complete  outfit  is  not  so  compact,  but  its  use  is  made  possible 
in  many  places  in  which  the  straight  tube  could  not  be  worked.  It  can 
also  be  fitted  with  an  extension  member  which  will  possibly  enable  the 
user  to  work  in  a  less  cramped  position,  and  secure  a  larger  sweep  for 
the  lever  rod  by  bringing  it  clear  of  obstructions. 

There  are  a  number  of  monkey  wrenches  on  the  market  which  vary 
much  in  quality  and  price.  It  is  usually  desirable  to  carry  two,  one  a 
well  made  bicycle  wrench  and  the  other  of  similar  design  but  larger. 
With  these  it  is  ordinarily  possible  to  get  at  and  handle  successfully  any 
screw  or  nut  on  the  car. 

Something  has  already  been  said  on  the  subject  of  screwdrivers.  To 
make  the  labor  of  turning  screws  as  light  as  possible,  and  to  prevent 
injury  to  the  screw  and  to  the  blade  of  the  driver,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  blade  fit  to  the  bottom  of  the  slot  and  tightly  against  its  edges.  The 
sides  of  the  blade  should  be  nearly  parallel,  as  the  more  they  taper  the 
greater  is  the  amount  of  endwise  pressure  necessary  to  keep  the  driver 
in  the  slot,  and  the  greater  the  likelihood  of  doing  damage  to  the  screw. 
A  good  sized  handle  is  a  necessity,  as  the  amount  of  leverage  obtain- 
able is  dependent  upon  its  diameter. 

235 


What  special  spanners  should  be  carried  depends  upon  the  design  of 
the  car.  The  makers  usually  supply  them  as  part  of  the  regular  equip- 
ment. 

For  pliers,  the  automobilist  will  do  well  to  select  those  which  provide 
for  a  parallel  jaw  movement  and  are  also  fitted  with  a  wire  cutting  attach- 
ment. This  type  is  superior  to  the  ordinary  pivoted  variety  in  many 
ways.  They  can  be  used  for  turning  small  nuts  without  danger  of  wearing 
off  the  corners,  and  because  of  the  fact  that  they  grip  for  the  entire  length 
of  the  jaws  it  is  possible  to  hold  more  tightly  with  them  and  there  is  little 
likelihood  of  slipping  off  and  pinching  fingers. 

We  come  now  to  the  tools  for  extraordinary  repairs.  They  consist 
mainly  of  the  more  common  bench  tools  of  the  machinist — the  hammer, 
cold  chisel,  drifts,  files,  pipe  wrench,  etc. 

The  hammer  should  be  of  the  machinist's  type  and  of  medium  weight. 
Two  cold  chisels  will  usually  be  enough,  one  for  light  and  the  other  for 
heavy  work.  It  pays  to  have  good  chisels  and  to  keep  them  sharp.  Those 
which  can  be  had  at  a  relatively  small  price  are  ordinarily  made  from 
inferior  steel  improperly  hardened,  and  if  they  do  not  break  easily  they 
will  most  likely  dent  on  a  bit  of  metal  which  a  good  chisel  would  cut 
through.  Care  should  be  taken  that  hardened  steel  pieces  be  not  attacked 
with  a  chisel.  If  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  whether  the  piece  is  "hard" 
or  "soft"  it  is  best  to  test  it  first  with  a  file. 

A  set  of  drifts  so  selected  that  any  taper  pin  or  key  on  the  car  can 
be  driven  out  should  find  a  place  on  every  car.  It  is  a  common  sight 
to  see  motorists  endeavor  to  drive  out  a  pin  with  a  wire  nail  or  a  bit 
of  wire.  If  a  pin  is  fitted  properly,  it  will  be  practically  impossible  to 
do  this.  Before  it  starts,  the  nail  or  wire  will  bend,  and  the  chances 
are  that  metal  around  the  hole  will  be  considerably  dented.  With  a  drift, 
a  vigorous  blow  can  be  delivered  without  danger  of  its  bending,  and  the 
pin  will  therefore  start  more  readily. 

As  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  road  repairs  will  be  "finished  jobs," 
as  the  machinist  would  say,  a  great  variety  of  files  is  not  necessary. 
Three  is  usually  a  sufficient  number — one  a  coarse  bastard  with  which 
a  considerable  amount  of  material  can  be  removed  in  a  short  time; 
another  a  finer  "float,"  which  can  be  used  for  finishing  off  the  roughness 
left  by  its  larger  companion,  and  for  lighter  work;  the  third,  a  fine  finger 
nail  file,  to  be  used  for  dressing  electrical  contact  points.  There  are 
on  the  market  small  strips  of  emery  paper  designed  for  use  on  the  finger 
nails.  They  are  light,  compact  and  inexpensive,  and  are  very  satis- 
factory for  cleaning  platinum  points. 

For  handling  small  rods  and  pipe  nothing  is  more  satisfactory  than  a 
small  Stilson  wrench,  although  there  are  several  other  wrenches  on  the 
market  which  may  serve  the  purpose  equally  well.  A  pair  of  gaspipe 
pliers,  so  called,  will  also  meet  the  requirements  and  have  the  advan- 
tage of  quick  adjustment.  They  are  also  useful  in  turning  small  nuts 
the  corners  of  which  have  become  worn  off.  There  is  also  on  the  market 
a  flat  wrench  with  an  adjustable  saw  edge  jaw  which  can  in  many  instances 
be  used  to  advantage. 

Besides  the  extra  parts — bolts,  nuts,  screws,  etc. — which  should  be 
carried,  the  kind  and  number  depending  upon  the  construction  of  the 


car,  there  are  a  few  general  supplies  which  should  be  included  in  -the 
outfit.  It  is  surprising  to  find  how  many  purposes  a  piece  of  bare  copper 
wire  of  about  No.  12  gauge  will  serve.  It  is  so  nearly  a  "cure  all"  in 
minor  cases  of  troubles  that  the  motorist  who  has  had  experience  in  its 
use  considers  it  a  necessity.  A  considerable  amount  can  be  rolled  into 
a  small  coil,  and  a  length  of  12  feet  or  so  should  be  always  on  the  car. 

Rubber  tape  is  also  a  necessity.  Its  tensile  strength  and  adhesive  quali- 
ties make  possible  its  advantageous  use  on  many  occasions.  Two  pieces 
of  soft  sheet  brass  should  also  be  included — one  of  about  one-eighth  inch 
thickness  and  the  other  not  over  one  sixty-fourth  inch.  Brass  works  easily, 
and  can  be  bent  to  almost  any  desired  shape.  From  the  thicker  piece  can 
be  cut,  by  means  of  a  hammer  and  cold  chisel,  locking  nuts,  washers  and 
irregular  pieces  which  may  be  used  to  hold  broken  parts  together 
temporarily. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  in  selecting  tools  for  an  automobile 
equipment  the  purchaser  should  be  governed  more  by  quality  than  by  price. 
A  well  made,  substantial  tool  more  than  pays  for  itself  in  length  of  life, 
the  results  accomplished  and  the  satisfaction  derived  from  its  use. 


Adjustment  and   Renewal   of   Bearings. 

Although  most  of  the  recent  vehicle  engines  are  fitted  with  babbitt 
bearings,  duplicates  of  which  can  generally  be  obtained  from  the  factory 
when  wear  has  progressed  too  far  to  make  adjustment  possible,  there  are 
a  great  many  motors  in  service  fitted  with- bronze  bearings,  and  the  follow- 
ing suggestions  by  Mr.  Frank  S.  Hanchett  apply  primarily  to  such : 

All  bearings  demand  constant  attention,  but  most  especially  do  those 
of  the  crank  shaft  and  connecting  rod  want  watching,  as  they  are  most 
subject  to  strains,  wear  faster  than  the  others  and  require  more  frequent 
readiustment  and  renewals.  With  the  crank  shaft  bearings  there  is  a 
constant  tendency  to  acquire  end  motion  from  the  thrust  of  the  clutch, 
which  not  only  causes  a  pound  or  knock,  which  will  be  most  evident  when 
the  motor  is  running  free,  but  will,  if  not  looked  after,  cause  heating  of 
crank  and  wrist  pin  bearings  by  straining  the  connecting  rods  out  of  line. 
The  amount  of  this  end  motion  may  be  ascertained  by  prying  on  opposite 
side  of  the  flywheel  with  a  bar  so  as  to  cause  the  crank  shaft  to  move 
laterally  in  the  boxes  or  bearings. 

TAKING   UP   END   MOTION. 

Where  there  is  room  a  collar  composed  of  two  semicircular  pieces  of 
brass  or  iron,  bolted  together  through  lugs  at  the  ends  and  held  in  place 
by  set  screws,  may  be  used  between  the  flywheel  and  nearest  crank  shaft 
bearing.  This  will  take  part  of  the  thrust  and  may  be  reset  to  take  up 
the  wear  as  it  occurs.  If  no  room  is  found  for  such  an  attachment,  the 
bearing  must  be  renewed  whenever  the  end  motion  gets  bad. 

Looseness  in  these  bearings  comes  from  natural  wear,  which  can  be 
kept  down  to  the  minimum  by  careful  and  conscientious  lubrication. 
Whenever  this  looseness  becomes  great  enough  to  require  taking  up,  either 
new  bearings  must  be  fitted  or  the  old  ones  bored  out  and  babbitted,  which 
last  is  a  cheap  and  good  method  of  repair,  but  one  requiring  that  the 

237 


lubrication  be  constant,  as  any  lack  of  oil  and  consequent  dryness  of  the 
surface  will  cause  the  babbitt  to  become  heated,  and  to  melt  and  run  out 
of  the  bearing,  which  makes  necessary  the  removal  and  smoothing  up  of 
the  journal  and  rebabbitting  of  the  bearing. 

Connecting  rod  bearings  or  brasses,  though  they  wear  faster  at  the 
crank  pin  ends  and  demand  more  adjusting  than  any  other  about  the 
motor,  generally  get  the  least  attention  of  any,  because  they  are  covered 
up,  hard  to  get  at  and  dirty  to  handle.  The  piston  pin  brasses  are  gen- 
erally solid  bushings  and  require  renewing  when  worn,  but  as  the  motion 
at  this  end  is  slight  and  the  wear  small  these  renewals  do  not  have  to  be 
made  frequently.  At  the  other  end  of  the  rod  the  bearings,  as  has  been 
stated,  wear  quite  rapidly,  and  require  to  have  the  ensuing  lost  motion 
taken  up  frequently.  To  facilitate  this,  these  bearings,  or  brasses  (as  they 
are  frequently  called),  are  made  in  two  halves  and  clamped  to  the  rod 
and  around  the  pin  by  what  is  termed  a  cap.  These  caps  and  brasses,  with 
their  adjusting  means,  take  various  forms,  each  of  which  has  its  own 
peculiarities. 

CRANK    PIN    BEARINGS. 

A  good  form  is  made  with  a  semicircular  cap  bolted  direct  to  the  end 
of  the  rod,  as  shown  in  Fig.  124,  with  the  brasses  between. 

In  this  form  the  brasses  are  held  apart  at  the  edges  by  liners  A, 
which  are  kept  in  place  by  the  cap  bolts  running  through  them.  To 

take  the  lost  motion  out  of 
this  design  of  brass,  the  liners 
must  be  removed  and  filed 
down  the  requisite  amount  or 
else  replaced  by  thinner  ones. 
While  this  forms  a  fairly 
strong  construction,  it  has  the 
fault  of  being  unhandy  to  ad- 
just, and  of  causing  the  opening 
for  the  pin  to  assume  an  oval 
form  when  the  liners  are  filed 
and  having  light  and  short- 
lived brasses. 

About  the  poorest  form  in 

use  is  that  which  uses  only  one  bolt  for  keying  purposes  and  has  the  other 
side  of  the  strap  arranged  with  a  hinge  (Fig.  125).    This  uses  the  same 
style  of  liner  that  Fig.  124  does,  but  only  on  one  side.     It  has  a  greater 
tendency  to  cause  the  brasses  to  be- 
come oval  and  is  hard  to  adjust  cor- 
rectly.    The   brasses   must   be   fitted 
very  carefully  or  they  will  pinch  the 
pin,  and  the  key  bolt  pulled  up  solid 
for  any  slackness  will  let  the  brasses 
be  loose  in  the  strap,  making  a  nasty, 

rattling    pound,    and    adding   to   the    FlG-   '^.-CONNECTING  ROD  WITH 
danger  of  breakage.    It  is  also  prac- 
tically  impossible   to   get   a   liner  to 
Stay  between  the  brass  and  strap  for  lining  out,  so  that  after  the  keying 


£    HORSEXC33  AGE 


FIG.  124. — CONNECTING  ROD  HEAD,  HALF 
BUSHINGS  AND  SHIMS. 


THE    HCrtSCLTSS  AGE 


has  been  done  often  enough  to  eliminate  the  liner  and  bring  the  edges 
of  the  brasses  together  they  will  have  to  be  replaced  by  a  new  set.  A 
pin  run  in  this  form  of  brass  seems  very  hard  to  oil,  and  is  almost  always 
to  be  found  rough  or  cut  after  a  few  days'  usage. 

Filing  and  fitting  brasses  requires  careful  work,  but  can  be  done  by  a 
person  possessing  some  mechanical  ability  and  capable  of  handling  a  file. 
For  good  work  the  tools  needed  are  a  vise,  inside  and  outside  calipers,  a 
medium  coarse  file,  either  flat  or  half  round,  and  a  scraper  made  of  tem- 
pered steel  about  one-quarter  inch  thick,  i  inch  wide  and  10  or  12  inches 
long,  cut  off  square  at  one  end  and  rounded  at  the  other,  and  carefully 
ground  so  that  the  edges  of  the  ends  are  sharp. 
EXAMINING  BEARINGS. 

When  the  brass  is  taken  down  for  filing  the  strap  and  rod  should  be 
examined  closely  for  possible  cracks,  and  the  pin  looked  over  to  see  how 
badly  it  is  worn.  This  is  done  by  trying  its  diameter  from  different  posi- 
tions with  the  outside  calipers  (Fig.  126).  If  not  badly  out  of  round,  it 
will  run  all  right,  but  if  much  worn  it  will  be  advisable  to  have  it  turned  up. 

SMOOTHING  THE  CRANK  PIN. 

If  the  pin  is  cut  or  rough,  but  not  bad,  it  can  be  smoothed  up  without 
removing  the  crank  shaft,  as  follows :  Take  a  piece  of  hard  rope  (clothes 
line  will  do)  of  suitable  length,  and  to  each  end  fasten  a  handle  made  of 
a  piece  of  broom  stick  or  similar  round 
wood.  Into  the  centre  of  the  rope 
for  about  a  foot  work  a  good  dose  of 
emery  and  oil,  now  give  the  rope  a 
turn  around  the  crank  pin  so  that  the 
emery  part  will  come  in  contact  with 
it,  and  taking  a  handle  in  each  hand 
and  pulling  first  with  one  and  then 
with  the  other,  cause  the  emery  part  of 
the  rope  to  rub  on  the  pin;  at  the  same 
time  keep  the  rope  moving  back  and 
forth  along  the  length  of  the  pin  by  pulling  at  a  slight  angle  with  the 
work  in  the  direction  that  it  is  desired  to  have  the  rope  go.  If  this  is 
patiently  and  conscientiously  followed  out,  applying  more  emery  as  needed, 
the  pin  can  be  brought  into  very  good  shape  without  disassembling  the 
engine  and  putting  the  crank  shaft  in  a  lathe. 

FITTING  THE  BRASSES. 

When  the  pin  has  been  got  in  satisfactory  shape  the  next  step  is  filing 
and  fitting  the  brasses  to  it.  First  fasten  one  of  the  brasses  into  the 

vise  and  set  the  other  one  on 
top  of  it  in  the  position  which 
they  would  occupy  when  in 
the  strap.  Now,  with  the  out- 
side calipers  take  the  diam- 
eter of  the  pin,  being  careful 
to  do'  this  at  its  largest  point 
if  out  of  round.  Then  adjust 

FIG.  127. — TRANSFERRING  CALIPER  the   inside    calipers   to    fit   be- 

MEASUREMENTS.  tween  the   points   of   the   out- 


»£  HORSELESS  AGE 


FIG.  126.— TESTING  CRANK  PIN 
FOR  ROUNDNESS. 


239 


side  calipers,  as  shown  in  Fig.  127.  Now  with  the  inside  calipers 
try  the  inside  diameter  of  the  brasses  to  ascertain  how  much  they 
will  have  to  be  reduced,  and  remember  that  in  filing  equal  amounts 
must  be  removed  from  both  brasses,  otherwise  they  will  not  be  of 
the  same  shape.  Next  remove  the  upper  half  of  the  brass  and  file  the 
lower  half  along  the  edges.  From  time  to  time  as  the  filing  proceeds  the 
top  brass  should  be  again  set  on  the  bottom,  both  to  see  whether  the 
lower  one  has  had  its  share  of  filing,  which  is  found  by  using  the 
calipers  (Fig.  128)  and  comparing  the  diameter  with  what  it  was 
originally,  and  to  find  out  if  the  filing  is  being  done  true  and  square 
with  the  brass.  If 'poor  work  is  being  done  and  the  edges  are  not  square 
with  the  body,  the  top  half  of  the  brass  can  be  "teetered"  on  the  bottom 
in  the  same  way  that  a  chair  with  one  short  leg  will  act  in  relation  with 
the  floor.  When  the  half  in  the  vise  has  re- 
ceived its  share  of  filing,  take  it  out  and  fasten 
the  other  in,  proceeding  as  at  first  and  apply- 
ing  the  test  mentioned  for  squareness  from 

..        .  , .  it. 

time  to  time,  until  the  diameter  has  been  re- 
duced to  fit  the  calipers.     Of   course,  if  the        FIG.  128. — CALIPERING 
brasses  being  filed  are  of  the  variety  shown  in         BEARING  BUSHINGS. 
Figs.  124  and  125,  the  test  for  diameter,  both 

before  and  during  filing,  must  be  made  with  new  liners  of  the  original 
thickness  between  the  edges  of  the  brasses  on  one  or  both  sides,  as 
the  case  may  be. 

After  the  filing  comes  the  fitting  to  bring  the  bearing  in  the  proper 
place.  In  going  about  this  the  pin  is  smeared  with  a  mixture  of  lamp- 
black and  oil  or  red  lead  and  oil  stirred  into  a  fairly  stiff  paste.  Then 
the  brass  is  keyed  on  as  in  service,  and  the  engine  turned  over  a  few 
times,  or  the  brass  turned  on  the  pin,  whichever  is  most  convenient. 
Now  remove  the  brasses  from  the  strap  and  note  any  marks  left  on 
their  surface  by  the  lampblack  or  lead.  Then  with  the  scraper  cut  down 
these  projections,  erase  all  cuts  and  relieve  the  brasses  around  the  sides 
and  edges  until  the  .mark  left  by  the  lampblack  assumes  an  oval  form 
on  the  face  of  the  brass.  Always  be  careful  after  the  first  test  to  return 
the  brasses  to  the  strap  in  the  same  position  each  time,  and  not  to  get 
them  mixed.  If  the  oil  hole  or  holes  in  the  edge  of  the  brasses  have  been 
filed  out,  make  new  ones,  and  if  the  brasses  are  arranged  with  babbitt 
bars  in  them  make  sure  that  the  babbitt  is  in  tight ;  if  not,  peen  it  down 
with  the  ball  end  of  the  hammer  before  scraping. 

You  may  now  put  up  your  rods  and  key  the  brasses  up  solid,  and  if 
the  work  is  well  done  the  brass  can  just  be  nicely  moved  laterally  on  the 
pin  at  any  point  of  the  stroke,  and  by  running  your  engine  slowly  under 
light  load  for  a  few  miles  and  using  plenty  of  oil,  your  pins  should 
give  you  no  trouble  till  they  again  need  filing. 

Should  babbitt  be  melted  out  of  a  bearing  of  the  connecting  rod,  it 
can  be  temporarily  replaced  by  leather  or  fibre  soaked  in  oil. 


240 


Rebabbitting  Shaft   Bearings. 

(JOHN    P.    CONKLING.) 

First  make  sure  that  you  obtain  a  supply  of  the  same  class  of  lining 
metal,  or  babbitt,  as  that  originally  used  in  the  boxes.  A  better  grade, 
if  procurable,  will  do  no  harm;  a  poorer  grade  will  prove  very  expensive 
and  unsatisfactory,  as  these  bearings  are  generally  worked  up  to  their  limit. 
Remove  the  brass  boxes  with  the  babbitt  lining  and  place  them,  with 
a  couple  of  bars  of  babbitt,  in  a  melting  ladle  or  pot  over  the  fire.  If  the 
pot  or  ladle  is  not  large  enough  to  re- 
ceive all  the  boxes  at  once,  place  therein 
one  or  more  at  a  time,  according  to 
that  receptacle's  capacity.  Heat  the 
ladle,  the  babbitt  and  the  boxes  slowly 
until  the  babbitt  is  melted  and  flows  in 
th'e  ladle.  When  the  babbitt  is  melted 
out  of  the  boxes,  remove  the  brass 
boxes  and  let  them  cool  off  slowly. 
Repeat  this  operation  until  all  of  the 
brass  boxes  have  been  relieved  of  their 
babbitt  lining.  Never  allow  your  bab- 
bitt to  become  red  hot.  Keep  it  so  that 
it  will  look  like  fluid  silver.  The  tem- 
perature is  about  right  when  it  Is  just 
at  a  point  which  will  slightly  scorch  a  dry 
white  pine  stick  placed  in  the  molten 
metal  and  left  there  ten  or  fifteen  sec- 

FITTED  UP  WITH  LINER  FOR    onds-    Put  the  brass  boxes  back  in  their 
BABBITTING  places.    At  each  end  of  each  box  place 

a  little  strip  of  leather,  from  one-eighth 

A,   showing  leather  strips  in  place     to   &    quarter   Qf   an   jnch   wide     and   long 
to     centre    shaft;     B,     showing    end  -11  /•      /T-- 

plates   in    place   and   strips   removed,     enough   to   encircle  the   shaft    (Fig.    I2p). 

ready  for  babbitting.  Each    of    these   pieces    should    be    thick 

enough  to  fill  the  space  allotted  to  the 

babbitt  metal  between  the  brass  box  and  the  strip,  and  support  the  shaft 
just  a  trifle  above  its  proper  position.  Now  place  the  strap  in  position. 
By  this  means  the  cavity  is  formed  into  which  the  molten  babbitt  is 
poured.  In  most  of  these  boxes  the  babbitt  extends  from  end  to  end 
of  the  box.  To  extend  the  babbitt  space,  take  six  pieces  of  medium  heavy 
cardboard  or  thin  sheet 
metal,  each  piece  equal  in 
length  to  twice  the  diameter 
of  the  shaft,  and  equal  in 
width  to  one-half  the  diam- 
eter of  the  shaft.  About  the 
centre  of  one  of  the  long 
edges  of  these  pieces  cut  a 
semicircle  equal  in  diameter 
to  the  shaft.  Against  each 
end  of  each  of  these  boxes 


TME-HORSCUS3  ACE 


FIG.     129.  —  BEARING     BOXES 


FIG.    130.— CRANK   CASE  LOWER  HALF 
WITH  BRASS  BOXES. 


241 


place  one  of  these  pieces  of  sheet  metal,  so  fitted  as  to  close  up  the  ends  of 
these  babbitt  spaces;  clamp  these  sheet  metal  pieces  in  place,  then  remove 
the  strips  of  leather  and  the  cavities  are  ready  for  pouring.  Before  pouring, 
be  sure  your  boxes  and  shaft  are  dry,  otherwise  the  steam  created  by 
the  hot  metal  will  blow  the  babbitt  out  and  scatter  it  all  over  the  operator, 
which  is  dangerous. 

Now  if  your  molten  babbitt  is  at  the  right  temperature,  scrape  oft 
from  its  surface  the  oxidized  portion  with  a  stick  or  metal  spoon,  and 

then  pour  the  molten  bab- 
bitt into  the  cavities  pre- 
pared for  it,  filling  each 
box  brimming  full.  The 
babbitt  solidifies  in  a  few 
seconds,  when  the  shaft  can 
be  removed  to  inspect  the 
work.  If  the  work  is  im- 
perfect, repeat  it  until  prop- 
erly done. 

Many  expert  babbitters 
heat  their  boxes  and  shafts 
to  a  temperature  of  about 
180°  before  pouring,  which 

insures    them    against    cold 
FIG.  131-BABBiTT  LADLE  AND  SCRAPER.         sheets>    and    generally   pro. 

duces  a  much  finer  bear- 
ing surface  and  a  more  perfect  casting.  I  recommend  this  method 
when  putty  is  not  used  to  form  dams  or  to  stop  up  the  ends  of  the  spaces 
in  the  boxes  which  are  to  be  babbitted. 

Babbitt  shrinks  when  cooling  after  pouring,  and  needs  expanding  by 
some  method  to  cause  it  to  fit  tightly  into  the  recesses  formed  in  the 
box  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  babbitt  in  place, 
increases  the  density  of  the 
metal,  and  generally  pro- 
duces a  better  bearing  sur- 
face. To  do  this  in  small 
half  boxes  of  this  type, 
leave  the  box  in  its  seat  and 
use  a  swage  with  a  convex 
face  of  practically  the  same 
form  and  size  as  the  ball 

peen     of     a     three-quarter  FIG.  132.— END  PIECE. 

round   hammer.      Place   the 

ball  against  the  babbitt  and  by  hammering  the  swage  with  a  one  pound 
hammer,  striking  lightly  each  time  the  swage  is  moved,  go  over  and 
indent  the  entire  surface  of  the  babbitt  with  this,  swage,  thus  expanding 
the  metal  into  place  and  at  the  same  time  hardening  its  surface  by 
compressing  it. 

Endeavor  to  perform  this  work  uniformly,  both  as  regards  the  strength 
of  the  blows  delivered  and  the  spaces  between  the  indentations,  which 
should  apparently  run  one  into  the  other,  like  hammered  brass  work. 


Expanding  also 


After  each  of  the  boxes  has  been  treated  in  this  manner  the  shaft 
should  be  put  back  in  place  and  the  scraping  process  previously  described 
should  be  followed  until  the  bearings  are  perfectly  fitted  to  the  shaft 
throughout  its  length. 


Repairing  a   Broken   Bearing  Cap. 

A  piece  of  steel  is  bent  over  the  cap,  and  holes  drilled  in  it  to  corre- 
spond to  the  holes  in  the  cap. 
The  strap  thus  formed  is  placed 
as  in  the  cut,  and  the  same 
nuts  used  to  hold  the  whole  in 
place.  This  should  enable  the 
driver  to  run  about  carefully 
until  a  new  cap  can  be  pro- 
FlG  I33  cured.  In  the  cut  (Fig.  133) 

A  is  the  upper  half  of  the 

crank  case,  B  the  bushing  and  D  the  cap.    The  steel  strap  is  shown  at  C, 

and  the  shaft  at  S. 


Renewal  of  Worn  Connecting  Rod  Bearings. 

(C.  L.  LAMPKIN.) 

If  the  rod  is  one  that  cannot  be  babbitted  while  it  is  in  position,  one 
should  bush  the  worn  piston  end  of  the  connecting  rod  and  ream  the 
hole  again  after  the  bushing  is  pressed  in,  as  pressing  a  thin  bushing  in 
usually  closes  it  in  considerably,  and  as  now  nearly  all  piston  pins  are 
standard  sizes,  a  reamer  may  be  run  through,  but,  if  none  is  at  hand, 
scrape  carefully  with  a  half  round  or  three  cornered  scraper.  Put  a  piece 
of  cold  rolled  shafting  through  the  piston  pin  hole,  already  reamed, 
leaving  it  to  project  an  inch  or  two  on  each  end.  Place  the  cold  rolled 
steel  on  two  parallel  strips  (Fig.  134),  with  the  connecting  rod  between, 
then  take  another  piece 
of  cold  rolled  the  size  of 

the  crank  pin,  or  turn  a      /^T\      ^...--^ 

piece  to  thai  size,  put  it    /((•     ))^  )  \  ((^  J) 

through     the     rod     and     ^  • --'  •-•^"J'V   | 

block  up  the  rod  till  the     •' — ^t  noRse^  «ct 

crank     pin     is     central, 

leaving  the  cold  rolled  in        FIG.  134. — REBABBITTING  CONNECTING  ROD 

place  as  a  mandrel.   Use  BEARING. 

a  piece  of  cardboard  on 

each  side,  with  a  hole  to  slip  over  the  shaft,  put  putty  or  clay  around 

and  pour  one-half  at  a  time,  assuming  that  the  rod  is  one  with  a  hinged 

cap.     Using  the  parallels  will  keep  the  pins  in  line  with  each  other.     It 

is  better  to  bore  holes  for  the  cold  rolled,  but  it  takes  more  time.    Before 

pouring,  make  sure  that  both  ends  of  the  cold  rolled  are  an  equal  distance 

apart,  or  that  they  are  parallel  with  each  other. 

After  babbitting  the  next  thing  to  do  will  be  to  scrape   or  file  the 

243 


fillets  out,  as  a  bearing  should  never  touch  in  the  fillet.  Scrape  to  a 
nice  fit,  clamp  together  and  revolve  it  on  the  crank  pin.  The  cap 
should  be  screwed  on  solidly,  so  there  can  be  no  movement,  or  it  will 
work  and  cause  trouble. 


Removing   a   Flywheel. 

(C.  L.  LAMPKIN.) 

If  no  hydraulic  or  screw  press  is  at  hand,  it  is  better  to  make  a 
pulling  clamp,  as  it  is  dangerous  to  try-  driving  the  wheel  off  with  a 
sledge.  Fig.  135  shows  a  simple  device  for  pulling  flywheels  that  is  safe 
and  sure,  and  costs  but  little  to  make.  First  bend  two  clamps  of  I  inch 


FIG.  135. — YOKE  FOR  PULL  RODS. 


FIG.  136. 


square  steel,  as  shown  in  Fig.  136,  drill  a  hole  in  each  end  and  put  a 
bolt  through;  then  put  this  back  of  the  hub  of  the  wheel  (never  pull 
•on  the  spokes  or  the  rim  of  a  wheel  to  'any  great  extent).  If  there' 
are  holes  through  the  shaft  be  sure  and  put  pins  in  them  or  the  pressure 


FIG.  137.— PULLING  OFF  FLYWHEEL. 

will  upset  the  shaft  and  probably  ruin  it.  Fig.  137  will  make  clear  the 
use  of  the  clamp  and  screw.  The  object  in  using  one  central  screw  is 
to  get  a  straight  pull.  If  the  wheel  has  an  even  number  of  spokes,  the 
bolts,  as  shown  in  Fig.  137,  will  be  all  right,  but  if  the  number  of  spokes 

244 


is  odd,  then  two  bolts  should  be  used  on  one  side  and  the  spoke 
straddled.  With  this  outfit  one  can  remove  a  flywheel  very  expedi- 
tiously.  Of  course,  a  screw  press  is  much  quicker,  but  this  clamp  is 
cheap,  easily  made  and  does  the  work. 


Resetting   a    Loose    Flywheel. 

(JOHN    P.    CONKLING.) 

Flywheels  occasionally  become  loose  upon  their  shafts.  A  type  of 
wheel  mounting  in  common  use  is  that  in  which  the  wheel  is  held  against 
the  crank  shaft  flange  by  bolts,  and  the  twisting  effect  is  resisted  by  radial 
steel  keys  (Figs.  138  and  139). 

Long  usage  and  frequent  adjustment  may  so  wear  the  bolts  and  bolt 
holes  in  the  discs,  and  the  threads  on  the  bolts  and  nuts,  that,  as  in  this 
construction  there  is  no  locking  device  on  the  nuts,  it  may  be  impossible 
to  keep  the  two  discs  tightly  together  long  after  the  engine  is  put  in 
operation. 

This  condition  of  the  bolts  may  permit  the  discs  to  become  slightly 
separated,  and  open  a  trifling  space  in 
the  beds  of  the  radial  keys,  which 
increases  the  flywheel's  leverage  on 
the  bolts.  Under  such  slight  leverage 
the  continuous  changes  in  the  speed  of 
the  engine  soon  hammer  these  parts,  so 
that  there  may  be  considerable  vacant 
space  around  the  keys  and  bolts  in 
time.  The  hammering  continues  when- 
ever the  engine  is  in  use  until  the 
owner  may  become  alarmed  at  the 
noise  and  thumping  produced. 

While  the  vacancies  surrounding 
the  keys,  bolts,  hubs,  and  disc  may  not 
be  sufficient  to  appear  at  all  alarming 
when  examined  while  not  in  motion, 
Ihe^  effect  produced  upon  the  occupants 
of  the  car  at  900  revolutions  of  a  75 
pound  unbalanced  flywheel  is  far  from 
pleasant. 

The  wear  may  not  be  sufficient  at  any  one  point  to  permit  of  inserting 
a  bushing  or  shim  which  will  last  any  length  of  time.  Peining  carefully 
with  a  one-pound  ball  pein  hammer  (Fig.  140)  at  about  6  inch  drop;  all 
around  the  edge  of  the  centre  hole,  about  one-eighth  inch  to  three-eighths 
inch  back  from  its  edge  on  both  sides  of  the  flywheel,  and  performing  the 
same  operation  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  ring  on  the  rear  face  of  the 
flywheel  becomes  advisable.  To  do  this  satisfactorily  it  is  necessary  to 
place  the  flywheel  on  a  heavy  anvil  (Fig.  141),  or  smooth  heavy  piece  of 
metal,  to  secure  the  resistance  necessary  to  expand  the  metal  equally 
throughout  the  thickness  of  the  disc. 

A  35/2  inch  disc  of  steel  may  be  used  between  the  anvil  and  the  wheel 
to  lift  the  rim  and  ring  clear  of  the  anvil.  After  peining  carefully  several 


HORSELESS  ACE 


FIG.  138.— FLYWHEEL  FLANGE. 


245 


times  around  the  centre  hole  on  both  faces  of  the  flywheel  disc,  and  several 

times  around  the  outer  edge  of  the  ring  on  the  rear  face  of  the  flywheel, 

these    diameters    may    be    so 

reduced  that  they  are  made  to 

fit    perfectly    onto    the    forged 

steel    disc    and    hub    of     the 

engine  shaft. 

A  swage  with  a  convex 
face  of  nearly  the  same  form 
and  size  as  the  radial  keys 
may  be  used  to  expand  the 
keys.  They  should  be  placed 

upon  the  anvil  and  treated  in     FlG-  I39-— KEYS  AND  BOLT  FOR  FLYWHEEL. 
the  same  manner  as  the  wheel, 

with  the  exception  that  the  convex  face  of  the  swage  and  not  the  ball 
of  the  hammer  should  come  in  contact  with  the  face  of  the  keys. 
The  broad  face  of  the  hammer  being  used  to  hit  the  swage,  these  keys 
should  be,  each  in  its  turn,  so  swaged  out,  by  swaging  first  one  side 
and  then  the  other,  until  they  are  evenly  expanded  so  as  to  fit  tightly 
into  their  places. 

This  work  of  expanding  by  swaging  and  peining  may  be  done  so 
evenly  as  to  present  finished  bearing  surfaces,  showing  no  inequalities 
and  no  unsightly  bruises  on  the  surfaces  where  the  peining  is  done.  The 
peining  and  swaging  may  be  completed  in  about  three  hours. 

By  the  addition  of  six  new  bolts,  which  should  be  tightly  fitted  into 
the  bolt  holes,  and  supplied  with  tightly  fitting  nuts  and  extra  or  lock 
nuts  on  each  bolt,  the  work  may  be  completed. 

In  performing  this  operation,  the  ball  pein  end  of  the  hammer  should 
be  used.  The  progress  of  the  hammer  around  the  circle  should  be  very 
slow,  striking  lightly  many  times  almost  in  the  same  place,  but  gradually 
and  continuously  working  onward  around  and  around  the  circle,  until 
the  desired  reduction  in  the  diameter 
of  the  central  hole  is  secured. 


FIG.  140.— PEIN  HAMMER. 


FIG.  141. — ANVIL. 


This  can  be  determined  by  the  use  of  calipers,  with  which  the  diameter 
should  be  frequently  tested  during  the  operation.  Great  care  should  be 
exercised  to  prevent  the  hammer  from  striking  too  close  to  the  edge  of 
the  hole,  as  this  would  produce  lumpy  work. 

When  doing  such  work  the  hammer  should  make  about  200  strokes 
per  minute. 

246 


Reboring    Hole   for    Piston    Pin. 

(D.  A.  HAMPSON.) 

It  frequently  happens  that  the  piston  pin  of  an  auto  engine  wears 
(he  piston  so  that  the  hole  has  to  be  rebored  and  a  new  pin  or  bushing 
inserted.  To  true  up  the  piston  in  a  lathe  so  that  the  hole  when  finished 
will  be  concentric  with  the  original  one  in  both  "sides"  is  an  arduous  and 
difficult  task.  A  method  which  is  quick,  simple  and  always  dependable, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  142. 

First  an  arbor  is  turned  so  that  it  is  a  nice  running  fit  in  the  seg- 
ments of  the  old  hole,  and  the  piston  is  slipped  on  it.  A  four  jaw 


^ 


THE   HORSELESS   AGE 


FIG.  142. — REBORING  HOLE  FOR  PISTON  PIN. 

chuck  is  put  on  the  lathe  and  piston  caught  as  shown,  with  the  arbor 
resting  on  both  centres.  Now  it  is  a  short  matter  to  tighten  the  jaws 
so  that  the  arbor  turns  as  freely  as  it  did  out  of  the  lathe.  The  arbor  can 
now  be  removed  and  the  piston  bored  with  the  certainty  that  it  will 
be  concentric  with  the  old  hole.  In  the  drawing  a -four  jaw  chuck  is 
shown,  though  a  two  jaw  one  answers  as  well;  likewise  the  method  is 
applicable  to  pistons  with  the  hole  either  in  the  centre  or  one  end. 


Restoring  a   Broken   Valve  Guide. 

(OLIVER  LIGHT.) 

In  event  of  the  breakage  of  the  portion  of  a  cylinder  casting  which 
forms. the  guide  for  one  of  the  valves  (Fig.  143),  the  following  procedure 
may  be  resorted  to : 

The  motorist  took  the  writer  into  consultation,  to  see  if  the  cylinder, 
otherwise  in  perfect  shape,  need  be  replaced.  There  was  too  little  of 
the  guide  left  in  the  interior  of  the  valve  chamber  to  insure  accurate 
seating  of  the  valve,  and  the  engine  operated  very  unsatisfactorily  at  any- 
thing but  low  speeds.  The  writer  applied  a  new  bushing  or  guide  to 
replace  that  broken,  and  while  there  can  be  no  claim  for  the  exercise  of 
any  great  ingenuity  or  originality  in  this  method  of  making  a  repair,  it 
is  believed  that  the  manner  in  which  it  was  accomplished  may  be  of 

247 


FIG.  143. 


some   interest   to   those   not   specially   skilled   in 
"patchwork"  repairs. 

The  first  operation  is  facing  off  the  irregular 
metal  on  the  bottom  of  the  valve  chamber,  which 
is  done  by  a  simple  facing  tool  as  shown  at  Fig. 
144.  This  is  forged  from  a  piece  of  tool  steel. 
The  lower  portion  should  be  turned  7-16  inch 
in  diameter,  and  the  upper  part  so  that  it  will 
go  into  the  chuck  of  a  back  geared  drill  press. 
If  the  guide  hole  for  the  stem  is  worn  con- 
siderably, the  hole  should  be  cleaned  out  with  a 
7-16  inch  drill,  to  form  a  guide  for  the  lower 
portion  of  the  facing  tool.  The  cylinder  E 
is  firmly  clamped  to  the  drill  press  face  plate  by 
means  of  two  long  through  bolts  D  and  the 
strip  of  steel  bar  C,  which  extends  across  the 
mouth  of  the  cylinder,  and  is  held  in  position  on 
the  parallel  blocks  H  by  the  nuts  B.  After  the 

metal  has  been  removed  from  the  bottom  of  the  valve  chamber,  which 
is  faced  flush,  the  cylinder  is  reversed,  and  again  clamped  in  position. 
Then  the  facing  tool  is  used  till  all  of  the  projection  H  has  been  removed. 
An  11-16  inch  drill  is  then 
placed  in  the  chuck  G  and  a 
large  hole  drilled  through 
the  metal  at  the  base  of  the 
valve  chamber,  following 
the  7-16  inch  hole  as  a 
guide.  The  cylinder  is  again 
clamped  in  the  position 
shown  in  Fig.  144,  and, 
using  a  centre  in  the  chuck 
bearing  against  the  depres- 
sion in  the  top  end  of  a  54 
inch,  32  thread  tap  to  in- 
sure a  straight  thread,  the 
hole  is  tapped  out,  turning 
the  tap  with  a  spanner 
placed  on  the  squared  por- 
tion, the  chuck  being  fed 

down  as  the  tap  progresses  FlG-    I44' 

in  the  hole. 

The  next  operation  is  turning  up  a  suitable  guide,  which  is  done  in 
a  lathe,  using  a  piece  of  bronze  bar  stock.  On  this  is  left  a  substantial 
shoulder,  and  a  greater  length  of  threads  than  has  been  tapped  into  the 
valve  chamber  metal  is  cut  oh  the  bushing,  in  order  that  a  check  nut 
may  be  employed  to  make  a  sound  job. 

The  bushing  is  shown  at  B,  Fig.  145,  and  the  check  nut  at  C. 

The  threads  on  the  bushing  B  should  be  cut  a  little  larger  than  those 
in  the  hole  A,  and  the  bushing  screwed  in  place  by  the  use  of  a  large 
spanner,  the  check  nut  being  applied  with  a  socket  wrench  from  the  top. 

248 


FIG.  145. 


To  prevent  backing  out,  the  metal  protruding 
above  this  is  upset  with  a  centre  punch,  this  mak- 
ing a  very  strong  construction;  in  fact,  of  greater 
resistance  to  both  wear  and  shock  than  the 
original  cast  iron  bushing  which  it  replaces.  This 
bushing  is  shown  in  position  in  Fig.  146. 

The  method  employed  to  insure  that  the  hole 
through  the  guide  shall  be  in  the  proper  rela- 
tion to  the  valve  seating  is  as  follows:  A  spare 
valve  being  at  hand,  the  head  is  cut  from  this, 
after  it  has  been 
thoroughly  ground  in 
to  a  correct  seating, 
and  a  portion  of  the 
stem,  where  it  flares 
out  to  join  the  head 
and  obviate  an  abrupt 
head,  is  left  on.  The 


valve  head  is  accurately  centred  in  the  lathe 
chuck,  and  the  centre  mark,  which  had  'acted 
as  a  support  for  it  when  it  was  first  machined 
from  the  forging,  forms  an  •  accurate  guide 
by  which  a  ^  inch  hole  is  drilled  exactly 
through  the  centre  of  the  head.  The  head 
is  then  held  in  position  on  the  bevel  seating 
by  means  of  a  piece  of  tube,  accurately  faced 
off  at  both  ends,  which  is  in  turn  retained 
by  the  valve  cap.  If  the  valve  cap  E  is  tapped 
for  a  spark  plug,  and  as  the  tube  D  holds  the 
valve  head  A  positively  in  place,  a  guide  may 
thus  be  obtained  for  the  twist  drill  F,  and 
the  y^  inch  hole  for  the  valve  stem  bearing 
drilled  so  accurately  that  the  new  valve 
shall  have  a  perfect  bearing  at  all  points  on  the  seating. 


FIG.  146. 


Seating  a  Driven=in  Valve  Guide. 

In  replacing  a  damaged  valve  guide  which  is  retained  by  driving  it  into 
a  coned  seat  in  the  cylinder  casting,  it  is  generally  found  next  to  impossi- 
ble to  drive  it  in  from  below  without  dismounting  the  push  rod  guide,  since 
there  is  no  room  between  the  crank  case  and  the  end  of  the  guide  to 
swing  a  soft  hammer  to  give  sufficient  blow  for  the  purpose.  The  diffi- 
culty may  be  overcome  in  the  f ollowing  "manner :  A  rod  of  slightly  smaller 
diameter  than  the  valve  stem  should  be  cut  with  a  screw  thread  running 
its  entire  length.  Two  nuts  are  then  provided  to  fit  the  rod,  and  a  plate 
of  steel,  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  cut  so  as  to  rest  over  the  valve 
chamber  opening,  a  hole  of  slightly  larger  diameter  than  the  threaded  rod 
being  drilled  through  the  plate.  The  apparatus  is  rigged  as  in  Fig.  147, 
B  being  the  threaded  rod  and  G  the  valve  guide  placed  upon  it,  the  nut  C 
holding  the  same  in  position.  The  guide  is  placed  in  position  by  hand, 


249 


and  the  rod  B  passed  through  it,  and 
through  the  hole  in  plate  E,  nuts  A  and 
C  being  then  put  on.  Upon  screwing 
down  A  the  guide  is  forced  home,  when 
by  removing  nut  C  the  apparatus  is  re- 
moved by  lifting  it  out.  D  is  the  push 
rod  guide,  F  the  valve  seat  and  H  the 
chamber  to  the  manifold. 


Repairing  Cracked  Water  Jackets. 

(W.  O.  ANTHONY.) 

Many  schemes  have  been  devised  to 
do  away  with  cast  iron  water  jackets, 
upon  which  freezing  of  the  water  there- 
in usually  produces  such  disastrous  re- 
sults. Most  of  the  substituted  construc- 
tions are  eminently  successful,  being  much 
lighter  and  even  withstanding  an  occa- 
sional "freeze  up,"  the  only  result  of  this 
being  a  stretching  of  the  metal,  usually 
copper  or  brass.  For  some  time  to  come 
there  will,  however,  be  many  cast  iron 
water  jackets,  and  as  "to  err  is  human" 
and  once  in  a  while  one  gets  caught  by 
an  unexpected  cold  spell,  a  description  of 
the  method  to  be  employed  in  the  repair 
of  breaks  from  this  cause  may  enable  the 
owner  or  repair  man  to  avoid  the  usually 
heavy  expense  of  a  new  cylinder  or  head, 
or  the  still  heavier  expense  if  these  two 
are  integral,  as  is  becoming  the  standard 
method  of  making  these  cylinders.  If  it 

is  decided  not  to  have  the  crack  brazed  the  following  methods  may  be 
adopted : 

Should  the  break  in  the  jacket  wall  be  very  slight,  a  strong  rusting 
solution,  consisting  of  a  saturated  solution  of  sal  ammoniac  or  ammonium 
chloride  in  water,  is  poured  into  the  water  space,  making  certain  that 
the  cracked  portion  is  covered  by  the  solution.  If  this  is  used,  care  should 
be  exercised  to  avoid  getting  any  of  the  solution  inside  the  cylinder,  and 
the  cylinder  should  be  set  in  a  warm  place  and  allowed  to  stand  for  a 
day  or  two. 

It  is  seldom,  however,  that  this  method  will  be  successful,  as  the  cracks 
are  generally  too  wide  to  be  filled  solidly  with  the  rust  resulting  from 
the  action  of  the  solution. 

By  the  following  method  it  is  possible  successfully  to  repair  a  badly 
cracked  jacket,  even  though  the  crack  extends  the  whole  length  of  the 
cylinder  jacket  and  up  nearly  half  the  diameter  of  the  head,  and  besides 
the  main  crack  there  are  a  number  of  small  ones  radiating  from  a  point 


E    HOUSELESS    I«E 


FIG.  147. 


250 


at  the  bottom  and  much  resembling  in  appearance  the  spokes  of  a  wheel. 
Two  small  cold  chisels  should  be  obtained,  one  like  Fig.  148,  the  other  like 
Fig.  149. 

Removing  the  cylinders  from  the  machine,  a  groove  as  narrow  as  the 
widest  part  of  the  break  should  be  cut  with  the  chisel  first  mentioned,  of 


THE  HORSELESS  ACE. 


FIG.  148.         COLD  CHISELS.         FIG.  149. 

about  one-eighth  inch  in  depth,  and  following  the  crack  and  bringing  it 

about  in  the  centre  of  the  groove  all  the  way. 

Should  there  be   much  variation   in  the  width  of  the  original  crack, 

it  may  be  well  to  have  made  several  widths  of  both  styles  of  chisel,  using 

the  narrower  wherever  possible,  for  the  groove  should  be  made  no  wider 

than  necessary  to  cover  the  crack. 

It  will  require  some  care  in  cutting  these  grooves,  because  some  of 

these  cast  iron  jackets  are 
quite  thin,  and  too  hard 
blows  might  break  through. 
The  chisel  must  be  kept 
sharp.  After  cutting  a 
groove  with  the  chisel 
shown  in  Fig.  148 — and,  by 
the  way,  it  should  be  stated 
that  both  these  chisels  are 
a  little  wider  at  the  edge 
than  just  above  it,  to 
avoid  binding — the  chisel 


FIG.   150. — DOVETAIL  GROOVE  IN   CYLINDER 
JACKET. 


shown   by   Fig.    149   should 

be  run  over  the  grooves  with  the  side  A  at  the  bottom,  and  it  should  be 
held  with  the  edge  B  about  parallel  with  the  surface  of  the  jacket.  The 
object  of  this  latter  chisel  is  to  dovetail  the  groove,  making  it  slightly 
wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top— as  shown  in  Fig.  150.  This  form 
will  effectually  secure  the  metal  to  be  caulked  in  against  coming  out. 


251 


Regarding  the  metal  most  suitable  for  caulking  the  groove,  it  is  slightly 
easier  to  solder  it,  afterward  caulking  with  a  tool  to  be  described;  but  this 
metal  has  been  found  of  too  low  a  melting  point  in  certain  motors,  running 
at  high  rates  of  speed,  and  where  the  jacket  water  sometimes  attains  so 
high  a  temperature  as  to  form  superheated  steam.  This  condition  is  gen- 
erally attributable  to  defective  circulation,  due  to  partial  or  complete  stop- 
page of  the  circulating  pump.  Where  the  crack  to  be  mended  is  at  the 
bottom  of  the  jacket  wall,  solder  may  be  quite  safely  employed.  Soldering 
coppers,  weighing  2  or  3  pounds  each,  should  be  employed  for  this  work, 
as  an  iron  of  much  less  weight  will  not  hold  the  heat  a  sufficient  length 
of  time,  and  in  any  event  the  whole  cylinder  and  its  jacket  must  be  heated 
quite  hot  by  a  blow  torch  or  by  being  placed  in  a  hot  oven  for  an 
hour  or  so. 

There  are  many  solutions  used  as  fluxes  for  different  metals.  A  good 
flux  to  use  in  this  case  is  known  as  "cutter"  acid.  This  is  prepared  by 
adding  one  part  by  bulk  _of 
commercial  hydrochloric  or 
muriatic  acid  to  two  parts  of 
water  and  dissolving  scrap 
zinc  in  this  solution  until  the 
acid  is  neutralized.  This  solu- 
tion becomes  more  efficient 
with  age,  and  should  be 
allowed  to  stand  for  several 
days,  tightly  corked,  before 
being  used.  With  a  flat  brush, 
made  by  fastening  bristles 
from  an  old  dust  brush  into 
the  end  of  a  flat  tin  tube,  as  in 
Fig.  151,  squeezing  the  end  to- 
gether in  a  vise,  after  insert-  FIG.  151.  FIG.  152. 
ing  the  bristles,  coat  the  in- 
side of  the  groove,  an  inch  or  two  -at  a  time,  with  the  acid  solution, 
and  then  allow  the  solder  to  drop  into  the  groove  where  thus  treated 
by  holding  the  hot  soldering  iron  against  it  and  following  it  along.  It  is 
a  good  plan  to  follow  the  iron  with  a  blow  torch,  directing  the  flame 
against  it  and  the  work.  In  this  way  the  groove  may  be  completely 
filled  with  solder;  but  unless  the  work  is  watched  very  carefully  air 
bubbles  will  .form  underneath  and  only  a  film  of  solder  form  across 
the  top  of  the  groove.  This  condition  of  affairs  will  be  found  when 
the  job  is  finally  caulked;  but  it  may  be  overcome  by  running  a  piece 
of  fine  steel  piano  wire  into  the  molten  solder  in  the  groove,  and  work- 
ing it  back  and  forth,  when  the  air  is  quite  sure  to  follow  the  opening 
made  by  the  wire,  and  escape. 

After  going  over  the  whole  job  in  this  way,  the  soldered  joint  should 
be  caulked  with  a  tool  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  152,  having  a  concave 
groove  in  its  edge  of  about  the  width  of  the  caulked  groove,  or  perhaps 
a  little  less. 

This  caulking  compresses  the  solder  in  the  groove,  thereby  helping 
rnaterially  to  make  a  tight  joint.  After  caulking,  the  joint  should  be 


252 


resoldered  on  the  outside,  more  for  the  sake  of  appearance  than  anything 
else,  and  after  filing  off  any  surplus  solder  and  repainting  it  would  take  a 
sharp  eye  to  detect  any  evidence  of  a  break. 

As  before  stated,  in  many  machines  the  solder  is  almost  sure  to  melt 
and  run  out  at  points  high  up  in  a  horizontal  motor  where  the  heat  is  most 
intense  and  the  natural  circulation  not  always  of  the  best.  In  such  places 
the  groove  may  be  caulked  with  soft  copper,  and  a  job  of  this  kind  prop- 
erly done  almost  defies  detection,  and  of  course  cannot  melt  and  run  out 
under  extreme  conditions.  For  this  the  purest  obtainable  copper  rod, 
about  three-sixteenths  inch  diameter,  should  be  secured. 

This  may  be  softened  by  heating  to  a  red  and  dipping  quickly  into 
cold  water,  and  this  should  be  done  by  all  means,  as  it  renders  the  metal 
much  easier  to  caulk,  and  the  blows,  incurring  always  more  or  less  risk, 
are  lessened  in  proportion.  Unless  flat  copper  rod  can  be  secured,  the 
round  rod  should  be  flattened  to  a  thickness  which  will  just  enter  into 
the  outer  part  of  the  groove,  and  the  aim  should  be  to  have  as  few 
joints  as  possible,  selecting  the  longest  part  of  the  break  and  cutting 
off  a  few  inches  more  than  enough  for  it,  to  facilitate  handling. 

One  end  of  the  piece  of  copper  is  to  be  placed  at  one  end  of  the 
groove,  and  with  the  face  of  an  ordinary  machinist's  hammer,  weighing 
about  I  pound,  it  should  be  firmly  driven  down  into  the  groove  for  an 
inch  or  so  in  length  and  hammered  until  it  has  spread  down  in  the  groove 
and  filled  every  crevice. 

Having  secured  one  end  in  this  manner,  the  rest  of  the  piece  should 
be  driven  down  into  the  groove,  but  not  finally  spread,  the  idea  being  to 
spread  it,  as  nearly  as  possible,  all  at  once,  and  avoid  the  rather  sharp 
kinks  which  would  otherwise  be  formed.  By  hammering  until  the  cop- 
per begins  to  spread  materially  at  the  top  we  may  be  reasonably  sure  that 
it  has  filled  all  the  crevices  in  the  groove.  When  filed  off  even  with 
the  surface  of  the  jacket  the  job  is,  or  should  be  if  carefully  done, 
extremely  satisfactory. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  expansion  in  freezing  will  force  out 
part  of  the  metal  of  the  jacket,  so  that  neither  of  these  methods  can  be 
employed  as  a  repair,  or  if  they  can  be  the  result  is  not  at  all  sure  to 
be  lasting,  and  in  such  cases  a  method  now  to  be  described  will  work 
very  nicely,  but  has  the  disadvantage  that  it  disfigures  the  cylinder, 
which  thereafter  bears  mute  evidence  of  disaster  which  sometimes  inter- 
feres with  a  subsequent  sale  of  the  machine. 

Chalk  over  the  surface  upon  and  for  an  inch  around  the  break  with 
blue  chalk,  or  smear  it  over  with  a  thin  mixture  of  lampblack  and  oil. 
Now  cut  a  piece  of  soft,  clear  pine  the  shape  of  the  outside  of  the  mark- 
ing, and  holding  the  piece  against  the  broken  place  in  its  relative  posi- 
tion the  high  parts  will  be  shown  by  markings  upon  the  wood.  These 
should  be  worked  down  with  a  chisel  and  gouge  until  the  piece  bears 
quite  uniformly  over  the  broken  part.  Now  trim  off  the  top,  as  nearly 
as  possible  making  top  and  bottom  parallel  with  one  another,  and  have 
cast  in  copper  or  soft  brass.  Drill  for  No.  12  machine  screws  around 
the  edge  about  one-half  inch  apart,  and  drill  and  tap  into  the  jacket 
through  these  holes. 

253 


Mix  up  a  small  quantity  of  "Smooth-On,"  as  it  is  called,  and  smear 
it  over  the  broken  part  for  a  depth  of  about  three-sixteenths  inch,  and 
tighten  up  the  machine  screws  until  the  preparation  oozes  out  around 
the  edges.  This  sets  in  a  few  hours  and  forms  a  hard,  strong  cement, 
unaffected  by  either  heat  or  moisture.  As  many  may  not  be  aware  of 
the  place  of  manufacture  of  this  preparation  it  may  be  well  to  state  that 
it  is  made  by  the  "Smooth-On"  Manufacturing  Company,  Jersey 
City,  N.  J. 

The  amount  of  work  necessary  in  fitting  the  wooden  pattern  for  the 
copper  casting  may  be  reduced  very  greatly  by  securing  a  sheet  of  paraffine 
wax  about  three-sixteenths  inch  thick,  and  by  holding  for  a  few  seconds 
in  a  dish  of  warm  water  this  will  soften  and  become  pliable,  so  it  may 
be  bent  to  the  exact  shape  required,  and  the  cast  made  from  this  as  a 
pattern. 

Another  method  of  repairing  a  bad  break  which  cannot  be  caulked, 
which  may  at  this  point  suggest  itself,  consists  in  making  a  number  of 
strong  iron  bands  to  go  around  the  outside  of  the  jacket  at  points  close 
enough  together  to  enable  them  to  draw  the  joint  tightly  together,  if  it 
has  not  been  too  badly  distorted,  when  a  rust  solution  may  complete  the 
repair.  This  method  makes  a  very  bungling  job,  however,  and  it  is 
very  doubtful  if  it  possesses  any  advantages  over  the  first  described 
methods. 

It  not  infrequently  happens  that  the  cracks  in  the  jacket  assume  a  very 
irregular  and  broken  outline,  as  in  Fig.  153. 

Such  a  break  leaves  two  very  weak  points  at  A  and  B,  and  an  attempt 
to  caulk  the  break  with  copper  in  parts  adjacent  to  these  points  would 
almost  surely  result  in  breaking  out  these  corners. 

To  guard  against  this  a  couple  of  one-quarter  inch  studs  should  be 
threaded  into  both  the  jacket  wall  and  the  cylinder  wall,  thus  reinforcing 
the  former.  If  these  studs 
come  inside  the  cylinder  in 
the  clearance  space,  they 
should  be  run  through  one- 
thirty-second  inch  and  riv- 
eted over  solidly,  but  if  they 
come  into  that  portion  of 
the  bore  swept  by  the  pis- 
ton this  would  be  inadvisa- 
ble, and  the  hole  for  the 
stud  should  be  drilled  and 
tapped  only  part  way  into  pIG  I5^ 

the  cylinder  wall.     In  tap- 
ping these  holes,  it  must  be 

done  simultaneously  in  both  cylinder  and  jacket  walls,  otherwise  the 
latter  will  be  apt  to  spring,  as  the  tap  will  not  take  hold  at  once  in  the 
hole  in  the  cylinder  wall.  If  a  clamp  is  brought  to  bear  firmly  over 
a  point  as  close  to  the  hole  being  tapped  as  possible,  this  springing 
will  be  overcome. 


THE  HORSELESS  ACS. 


254 


Care  of   Poppet  Valves  and  Piston  Rings. 

(FRANK  S.  HANCHETT.) 

In  order  to  grind  in  a  caged  valve  first  remove  it  and  the  bushing 
or  ring  in  which  it  works,  and  which  contains  the  seat,  from  the  cylinder, 
take  the  spring  and  its  retaining  washer  from  the  stem,  and  then  turn 
the  bushing  and  valve  upside  down,  fastening  the  bushing  in  a  vise  or 
clamp  of  some  kind,  which  will  hold  it  stationary.  Then,  between  the 
valve  and  its  seat,  place  a  small  amount  of  oil  of  any  kind,  and  on  it 
sprinkle  evenly  a  light  layer  of  very  fine  emery  powder.  Now  place  a 
screwdriver  in  the  slot  which  will  be  found  cut  for  the  purpose  in  the 
centre  of  the  bottom  of  the  valve,  and  give  the  valve  twenty  or  thirty 
one-eighth  to  one-quarter  turns  on  the  seat  back  and  forth,  then  give  the 
valve  a  half  turn  or  less,  and  proceed  with  the  back  and  forth  motion 
as  before,  keeping  this  up,  with  occasional  additions  of  more  emery  and 
oil,  until  the  faces  of  the  bevels  of  the  valve  and  seat  appear  to  be  bright 
for  their  full  width  all  around  the  circle;  then  carefully  wash  with  gaso- 
line, and,  making  sure  that  no  particles  of  emery  are  left  between  the 
valve  and  seat,  turn  the  work  right  side  up,  replace  the  spring  and  pour 
gasoline  into  the  bushing  on  the  top  of  the  valve.  If  there  is  no  leakage 
by  the  valve  it  will  be  a  fair  presumption  that  the  work  is  well  done, 
but  if  the  gasoline  escapes,  continue  grinding  as  before  until  the  gasoline 
will  not  leak  through.  Strict  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  back  and 
forth  grinding,  never  using  a  continuous  rotary  motion,  as  this  will 
cause  the  emery  to  collect  in  a  ball  and  cut  a  groove  in  either  the  valve 
or  the  seat,  thereby  defeating  the  purpose  of  the  operation. 

For  good  results  very  light  pressure  should  be  applied  and  the  work 
done  slowly.    Should  the  stem  fit  loosely  in  its  guide  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  allow  the  valve  to  wobble  on  its  seat  while  being  ground,  or  the 
surfaces  produced  will  be  more  or  less  convex  instead  of  flat. 
WHEN   RENEWAL  is  NECESSARY. 

When  a  valve  has  been  ground  a  sufficient  number  of  times  to  allow 
the  face  of  the  valve  to  get  much  below  the  edge  of  the  seat,  it  is  time 
to  renew,  as  under  these  conditions  there  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of 
the  valve  to  stick  in  its  seat  and  fail  -to  open  on  the  suction  stroke  of 
the  engine.  Of  course  this  applies  more  to  suction  operated  valves  than 
to  those  mechanically  operated.  In  testing  and  overhauling  the  exhaust 
valves  it  is  not  customary  to  remove  the  seat,  even  where  it  can  be  done. 
The  test  for  tightness  js  made  by  removing  the  valve  from  its  seat  and 
with  a  soft  lead  pencil  make  a  series  of  marks  across  the  level  of  the 
valve  at  intervals  of  one-quarter  inch  around  the  circle,  insert  a  screw- 
driver point  in  the  grinding  slot  and  revolve  the  valve  on  the  seat,  at 
the  same  time  applying  pressure  on  the  screwdriver.  If  the  seat  be 
true  the  pencil  marks  will  be  entirely  wiped  out,  if  not  the  marks  will 
be  left  either  at  the  centre  or  edges  of  the  level,  as  the  seat  may  be 
either  concave  or  convex.  The  grinding  is  done  in  the  same  manner 
as  in  the  case  of  the  intake  valves,  and  continued  until  the  lead  pencil 
test  shows  out  O.  K. 

A  distance  of  one-thirty-second  of  an  inch  must  be  maintained  between 
the  lower  end  of  the  exhaust  valve  stem  and  its  actuating  trip  rod  for 

255 


the  purpose  of  preventing  -any  rebound  of  the  valve  from  its  seat  when 
closing.  When  this  clearance  commences  to  disappear  through  the  valve 
and  seat  wearing  away  from  frequent  grinding,  this  should  be  corrected 
by  adjustment. 

Pocketed  valves  are  necessarily  ground  while  in  place  in  the  cylinders 
and  great  care  should  be  exercised  that  none  of  the  abrasive  enters  the 
cylinder.  The  same  instructions  for  grinding  are  here  applicable  as 
in  the  case  of  caged  valves. 

Cylinder  packing  rings  or  the  cast  iron  rings  which  surround  the 
piston  in  the  grooves  provided  for  that  purpose,  should  fit  in  their  grooves 
loosely  enough  to  move  freely  in  any  direction,  so  that  the  tight  joint 
between  the  cylinder  walls  and  piston  may  be  maintained,  even  though  the 
piston  does  not  travel  perfectly  in  the  centre  of  the  cylinder.  This 
necessary  looseness  is  apt  to  bring  about  a  condition  which  must  be 
guarded  against,  and  which  consists  of  the  cuts  or  openings  in  the  rings 
which  allow  them  to  have  the  necessary  spring  effect  working  into  line 
and  causing  a  loss  of  compression  through  the  gas  leaking  by  at  this 
point.  When  rings  are  to  be  renewed  it  will  be  found  necessary,  as  a 
rule,  to  fit  them  by  hand.  Remembering  that  these  rings  are  compara- 
tively light,  and  made  of  cast  iron,  consequently  more  or  less  brittle, 
it  will  be  readily  understood  that  the  less  they  are  bent  or  opened,  the 
better;  therefore,  the  fits  should  be  made  when  possible  before  the  rings 
are  adjusted  in  the  grooves.  This  can  be  done,  where  the  only  fitting 
necessary  is  in  the  width  of  the  ring,  by  filing  the  edges  off  until  the 
outside  of  the  ring  can  be  placed  in  the  groove  and  the  ring  "walked" 
or  revolved  around  the  circumference  of  the  piston  and  rotated  on  its 
own  axis  at  the  same  time  without  binding  at  any  point.  Should  it  be 
necessary  to  remove  and  replace  the  ring  several  times  during  the  fit- 
ting, because  of  the  ring  being  too  thick,  great  care  must  be  used  not 
to  spring  the  ring  too  much,  or  it  will  be  broken.  In  cold  weather, 
warming  the  ring  through  with  a  torch  at  the  side  opposite  to  the  open- 
ing will  be  found  to  reduce  the  chance  of  breakage  to  some  extent.  If 
rings  are  worn  thin  or  have  lost  their  spring  through  overheating,  a 
temporary  repair  may  be  made  by  removing  the  ring  and  making  a  series 
of  light  centre  punch  .marks  along  the  inside  of  the  ring  for  two  inches 
or  more  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  cut. 


Valve  Setting. 

(FRANK   S.   HANCHETT.) 

Mechanically  operated  valves,  either  intake  or  exhaust,  are  actuated  by 
what  are  known  as  cams,  the  simplest  definition  of  which  term  is  a  wheel 
with  a  hump  on  one  side  of  it.  These  cams  for  each  valve  are  mounted 
on  a  shaft  which  runs  through  or  alongside  of  the  crank  case,  or,  in  some 
cases,  on  top  of  the  cylinders  parallel  to  the  crank  shaft,  from  which  it 
receives  its  motion,  either  through  a  worm  or  train  of  gears,  usually  the 
latter.  This  shaft  is  called  either  the  cam  shaft  or  two  to  one  shaft,  the 
last  name  being  derived  from  the  fact  that  the  actuating  and  receiving 

256 


gears  on  the  two  shafts  bear  that  proportion  to  each  other,  a  matter  which 
the  following  explanation  may  make  more  clear: 

Each  power  impulse  of  the  engine  requires  four  strokes  of  the  piston 
to  produce  it:  one  to  get  the  gas  into  the  cylinder,  one  to  compress  it,  one 
to  transmit  the  power  of  the  explosion  to  the  crank,  and  one  to  clean  out 
the  remains  of  the  exploded  gas  from  the  cylinder.  Now,  each  one  of 
these  strokes  or  movements  of  the  piston  in  one  direction  in  the  cylinder 
will  give  a  half  revolution  to  the  crank  shaft,  which  makes  two  complete 
revolutions  for  the  four  strokes.  Taking  the  case  of  the  exhaust  valve,  it 
can  readily  be  seen  that  it  is  necessary  that  the  valve  be  opened  on  the 
exhaust,  or  fourth  stroke,  but  on  no  other,  and,  as  the  cam  has  its 
projection  or  "hump"  extending  only  over  one-fourth  its  circumference, 
the  shaft  on  which  it  is  mounted  must  revolve  only  once  to  each  four  pis- 
ton strokes  to  bring  this  about;  but  as  the  shaft  from  which  it  receives 
its  motion  revolves  twice  to  every  four  piston  strokes,  the  cam  shaft 
gear  wheel  must  contain  twice  as  many  teeth  as  the  one  driving  it  in 
order  that  it  may  turn  once  to  the  latter's  twice,  making  a  two  to  one 
gear  train,  hence  the  name. 

Sometimes  the  cams  for  both  intake  and  exhaust  valves,  where  both 
are  mechanical,  are  on  the  same  shaft,  and  in  other  cases  there  is  a  sepa- 
rate shaft  provided  for  each  set  of  valves,  one  cam  shaft  being  placed  on 
each  side  of  the  crank  shaft,  the  cams  generally  being  forged  on  the  shaft 
or  keyed  solidly  and  case  hardened  to  prevent  wear. 

Setting  valves  or  regulating  their  opening  and  closing,  in  accordance 
with  the  position  that  the  piston  should  occupy  when  these  events  occur,  is 
one  of  the  most  important  adjustments  about  the  machine,  as  a  mistake  of 
one  tooth  in  the  position  of  the  gears  toward  one  another  will  make  a 
poor  working  engine  out  of  a  good  one.  The  proper  setting  of  the 
exhaust  valves  is  very  essential,  for  the  reason  that  if  they  open  too  early 
part  of  the  power  of  the  explosion  will  escape  without  doing  any  work, 
while  if  they  open  too  late  the  rising  pistons  will  have  commenced  to 
recompress  the  expanded  gas,  thereby  absorbing  some  of  the  power  gener- 
ated, to  do  an  entirely  useless  work,  that  of  overcoming  the  back  pressure 
due  to  the  recompression  of  the  gases.  It  is  therefore  necessary  that  the 
valve  shall  commence  to  open  at  precisely  the  proper  moment,  which  must 
be  just  long  enough  before  the  ending  of  the  explosion  stroke  to  allow 
sufficient  opening  for  the  exploded  gas  to  escape  of  its  own  accord  at 
the  beginning  of  the  exhaust  stroke,  which  it  will  do  through  its  ten- 
dency to  continue  to  expand  down  to  atmospheric  pressure.  The  rule 
followed  is  to  adjust  the  gears  to  one  another  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  valve  will  commence  to  lift  at  one-tenth  the  length  of  stroke  before 
the  completion  of  the  explosion  stroke,  this  preopening  of  the  valve  being 
called  "lead"  because  the  rising  motion  of  the  valve  precedes  or  leads 
the  rising  motion  of  the  piston. 

Of  course,  if  all  the  cams  are  forged  on  the  cam  shaft  or  fastened  with 
keys,  the  setting  of  one  valve  will  set  them  all,  if  the  man  who  laid  out 
the  cam  shaft  has  done  his  work  properly;  but  if  the  intake  valve  cams 
are  on  a  shaft  of  their  own  it  is  necessary  to  make  an  adjustment  of- that 
shaft  also.  In  doing  this  lead  is  also  allowed,  for  the  purpose  of  having 
the  valve  partially  open  at  the  commencement  of  the  suction  stroke,  but 

257 


in  this  case  the  lead  allowed  is  only  one-twentieth  of  the  length  of  the 
piston  stroke  or  only  one-half  of  what  the  exhaust  lead  is.  This  work  Is 
best  done  by  an  expert,  but  should  it  happen,  as  it  sometimes  does  with 
makes  of  opposed  cylinder  engines,  that  the  pin  through  the  collar  on  the 
outer  end  of  the  cam  shaft  which  holds  the  shaft  in  place  breaks,  allowing 
the  valve  gear  to  become  disengaged,  then  the  resetting  of  the  valves  will 
have  to  be  done  at  the  roadside.  The  operator  proceeds  as  follows: 

First  remove  the  crank  case  cover  so  that  the  cranks  can  be  seen; 
then,  selecting  one  to  work  with,  turn  the  crank  shaft  round  by  means  of 
the  starting  crank  until  the  crank  selected  is  within  an  inch  of  the  bottom 
of  what  would  be  its  explosion  stroke.  Now  turn  the  cam  shaft  around 
in  the  direction  in  which  it  runs  when  in  operation  until  the  cam  is  just 
against  the  valve  stem;  slip  the  gears  into  each  other  and  turn  the  crank 
shaft  until  the  exhaust  is  finished,  carefully  watching  the  motion  of  the 
valve  stem  while  this  is  being  done.  If  the  lift  commences  with  the  crank 
at  a  little  more  than  an  inch  from  the  bottom  of  its  throw,  and  continues 
until  the  outer  end  of  the  crank  has  moved  about  2  inches,  and  then  all 
motion  of  the  valve  stem  ceases  until  the  crank  has  arrived  within  about 
2  inches  of  the  end  of  its  revolution,  the  valve  commencing  to  close  at 
this  point,  but  not  being  completely  closed  until  the  crank  reaches  its 
centre,  your  engine  will  run  all  right,  and  you  can  replace  the  collar  and 
fasten  it  in  place  with  a  wire  nail  or  piece  of  wire  in  lieu  of  the  broken 
pin.  If,  however,  the  valve  closes,  which  will  be  shown  by  the  cessation 
of  motion  on  the  part  of  the  valve  stem,  before  the  crank  completes  its 
revolution,  disengage  the  gears  and  turn  the  larger  one  one  or  two 
teeth  ahead,  which  will  usually  accomplish  the  result  desired.  In  doing 
this  adjusting  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  thing  most  desirable,  even 
if  lead  must  be  sacrificed,  is  to  hold  the  valve  open  until  the  completion 
of  the  exhaust  stroke,  for  if  it  closes  before  that  time  the  effect  will  be 
to  cut  down  the  speed  and  power  of  the  motor  through  the  generation 
of  back  pressure. 

In  setting  intake  valves  the  same  process  can  be  followed,  remembering 
the  fact  that  less  lead  is  allowed  in  this  case  than  in  the  other.  The  intake 
cams  on  some  engines  are  of  such  length  that  they  hold  their  valves  open 
for  a  considerable  period  after  the  bottom  .centre  is  reached.  As  the 
piston  is  nearly  stationary  at  this  point,  for  a  moment,  and  commences  to 
rise  very  slowly,  the  intake  valve  may  be  held  open  for  at  least  20  degrees 
of  crank  angle  beyond  the  bottom  centre  without  danger  of  any  of  the 
charge  being  pushed  out.  In  fact,  the  increased  length  of  valve  opening 
allows  the  cylinder  to  more  completely  fill  with  charge  than  would  be  the 
case  with  a  shorter  period  of  opening.  This  is  especially  true  when  the 
engine  is  at  high  speed. 

It  is  of  importance  that  there  be  the  proper  amount  of  clearance  al- 
lowed between  the  push  rod  and  the  end  of  the  valve  stem.  If  there  is 
not,  the  valve  stem  should  be  shortened  by  filing,  grinding  or  facing  in 
a  lathe.  The  latter  is  the  better  way.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  just 
enough  clearness ;  one-thirty-second  of  an  inch  is  about  right  in  ordinary 
cases.  If  more  is  given  the  valve  may  not  get  the  required  amount  of 
lift,  and  if  less  is  given,  when  the  engine  is  cold,  the  valve  stem  may 
expand  enough  when  the  engine  warms  to  prevent  the  valve  from  seating 

258 


properly.  Should  a  valve  stem  prove  too  short  it  can  be  easily  and 
quickly  made  longer  by  drilling  a  hole  in  the  e*nd  of  the  stem  and  turning 
a  piece  to  fit  into  it,  with  a  head  of  a  thickness  equal  to  the  additional 
length  required,  and  brazing  them  together.  The  end  may  be  case  hard- 
ened at  the  same  time  if  necessary. 

The  above  rules,  while  of  quite  general  application,  are  not  intended 
to  supersede  definite  instructions  furnished  by  the  builders  of  a  particular 
car  as  to  the  periods  of  opening  and  closing  of  the  two  sets  of  valves. 

Most  motors  are  now  provided  with  markings  inscribed  upon  the 
face  of  the  flywheel  which  indicate  when  these  actions  should  take  place — 
a  stationary  pointer  or  index  being  furnished,  under  which  the  mark- 
ings upon  the  flywheel  pass  as  the  engine  is  turned  over.  The  inscrip- 
tions are  usually  somewhat  as  follows :  "Exhaust  opens,"  "Inlet  closes," 
etc.,  and  in  inserting  a  cam  shaft  after  its  removal  for  repairs  or  other- 
wise the  gears  should  be  so  meshed  that  these  operations  take  place  at 
the  periods  specified.  Ordinarily,  too,  the  cam  shaft  gears  are  marked — 
one  gear  having  a  tooth  prick-punched  and  its  mate  having  the  tooth 
space  in  which  this  tooth  should  be  set  also  designated  by  prick-punch 
marks. 

The  flywheel  markings  are  also  useful  in  determining  the  mistiming 
effect  of  wear  in  the  valve  mechanism  and  in  facilitating  the  correction 
of  the  same. 


Valve  Gear  Suggestions. 

OVERCOMING  VALVE  STEM  WEAR. 

Quite  a  large  number  of  motors  are  made  without  means  of  lengthen- 
ing the  valve  stem  or  shortening  it  if  necessary.  Usually  the  user  of 
such  a  motor  is  compelled  to  purchase  a  new  tappet  rod,  or  even  a  new 

valve  (and  stem)  in  some  cases. 
For  actual,  continuous  service 
this  is  the  best  way  in  the  end, 
but  an  emergency  repair  can  be 
made  as  follows:  A  thimble,  one 
of  the  ordinary  brass  kind,  can 
be  used  to  fill  up  the  gap,  the 
thimble  being  filed  and  hammered 
into  place.  The  benefits  derived 


FIG.  154.  FIG.  155.    the  motor  is  restored  to  its  former 

efficiency   and    runs    very    quietly. 

Though  the  expedient  is  only  for  temporary  use,  a  double  opposed  motor 
fitted  as  above  has  run  some  700  miles  without  appreciable  loss  of  effi- 
ciency due  to  small  lift  of  valves  and  consequent  incomplete  exhaustion. 

NOISELESS   VALVE  TAPPETS. 

While  on  the  subject  of  noiseless  valve  action,  mention  may  be  made 
of  the  use  of  fibre  tappets,  which  are  fitted  on  some  American  built  mo- 
tors. The  idea  is  all  right,  but  as  fibre  is  soon  "stamped  out"  or  dis- 

259 


FIG.   156. 


torted  and  worn  the  valves  lose  their  proper 
timing  and  replacement  is  necessary.  Follow- 
ing current  practice  in  the  spinning  industry, 
cither  of  the  following  arrangements  of  "built 
up"  fibre  tappets  can  be  used:  The  first  (Fig. 
154)  consists  of  a  metal  piece  of  the  shape  of 
a  pump  leather,  the  portion  inside  being  thor- 
oughly filled  with  fibre.  The  diameter  of  the 
metal  piece  should  be  slightly  less  than  that 
of  the  valve  stem.  This  arrangement  will  be 
nearly  noiseless,  and  will  cushion  the  blow  given  to  the  valve  stem. 
A  more  noiseless  arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  155.  Here  the  metal 
piece  is  cross  shaped,  and  the  fibre  which  sur- 
rounds it  is  prevented  from  splaying  by  a  cup. 
This  is  more  expensive  to  construct  than  the  first, 
and  consequently  will  not  be  had  on  the  moderate 
priced  stock  models  of  automobiles.  , 

QUIETING  TIMING  GEARS. 

Some  very  thin   sheet  copper   should   be   se- 
cured and  cut  to  the  same  width  as  the  idler  gear 
face.    This  is  fitted  carefully  over  the  teeth  and 
fastened  in  several  places,  as  at  A  in  Fig.  156. 

A  little  depression  should  be  filed  at  the  root  of  a  tooth  B,  Fig.  157, 
the  two  ends  (or  single  thicknesses)  pressed  into  place  in  the  depression, 
and  a  soft  iron  wire  passed  over  the  ends  and  fastened  completes  the 
repair.  The  thickness  of  copper  used  is  determined  by  the  amount  of 
back  lash  and  clearance  in  the  gears. 


FIG.    157. 


Applying  a  Magneto  to  an  Opposed  Motor. 

Where  the  opposed  motor  in  question  is  located  under  a  curved  hood 
at  the  front  of  the  motor,  there  is  usually  only  sufficicent  space  above 
the  crank  casing  and  the  valve  chambers  for  the  placing  of  a  magneto. 
The  crank  case  cover  affords  a  good  place,  but  when  this  is  removed 
the  magneto  would  have  to  be  removed  also,  thus  breaking  the  setting. 
The  arrangement  shown  (Fig.  158)  obviates  this.  A  stand  P  is  built 
up  and  fastened  to  the  top  of  the  crank  case  flanges,  a  supporting  leg 
being  placed  as  shown.  The  magneto  is  bolted  to  this  stand  with  the 
operating  end  toward  the  crank  case.  Upon  the  projecting  .  end  of 
the  half  time  shaft  (which  formerly  held  the  timer)  a  bevel  pinion  is 
keyed ;  in  mesh  with  this  bevel  pinion  is  another,  their  ratio  being  i  :2, 
as  the  magneto  is  designed  to  drive  at  motor  speed.  These  bevel  gears 
are  contained  in  a  casing  bolted  to  the  crank  casing,  the  shaft  of  the 
driven  bevel  gear  being  prolonged  and  terminating  in  a  ball.  The  drive 
shaft  of  the  magneto  has  keyed  to  it  the  socket,  which,  together  with 
the  ball,  forms  a  universal  joint.  An  adjusting  device  is  fitted  in  this 
case,  being  shown  in  section  in  the  illustration.  F  is  the  magneto  drive 

260 


shaft  fitted  with  the  key  K.  The  interior  of  the  socket  collar  is  pro- 
vided with  a  series  of  slots  G  G,  by  the  use  of  which  adjustment  for 
wear,  etc.,  may  be  made.  The  key  is  shown  in  one  of  these  slots.  The 
socket  is  held 'upon  the  shaft  by  .means  of  a  set  screw  S. 

This  method  of  mounting  has  no  other  objection  than  that  it  renders 
the  valve  spring  of  the  left  cylinder  a  trifle  difficult  to  remove,  due  to 


HE     NMUIUI    «OE 


FIG.  158.— MAGNETO  FITTED  TO  OPPOSED  MOTOR. 


the  proximity  of  the  magneto  and  its  stand.  The  magneto  is  discon- 
nected by  the  withdrawal  of  the  drive  pins  R  R.  It  would  undoubtedly 
be  better  if  the  drive  were  in  a  straight  line,  but  this  would  place  the 
magneto  so  that  it  would  interfere  with  the  closing  of  the  hood  or  rest 
against  the  manifold,  and  it  was  also  for  these  reasons  that  the  above 
mounting  was  adopted. 

AN  ADAPTER  FOR  DUAL  IGNITION. 

This  is  the  day  of  double 
systems  of  ignition,  and  cars 
adapted  therefor  have  either 
two  sets  of  spark  plugs  (when 
the  ignition  is  high  tension)  or 
make  and  break  mechanisms 
and  spark  plugs.  But  for  cars 
having  only  one  spark  plug 
aperture  an  adapter  may  be 
used.  This  may  be  of  pipe  fit- 
tings or  of  a  special  casting. 
The  idea  is  to  enable  the  use 
of  either  of  two  spark  plugs  in 
one  aperture.  Fig.  159  shows 
several  forms  of  adapter.  A  is  PIG.  159. 

made  of  pipe  fittings,  B  and  C 

are  castings.  The  branches  of  the  adapters  are  tapped  to  take  the  spark 
plug,  while  the  shank  is  threaded  to  fit  in  the  spark  plug  aperture.  It  will, 

261 


of  course,  be  necessary  to  have  the  spark  plug  the  same  distance  from 
the  interior  of  the  combustion  chamber  in  all  adapters  in  use  on  a  multi- 
cylinder  motor,  to  equalize  the  time  of  ignition  as  much  as  possible. 


Overhauling  a  Motor. 

(PIERRE   MAILLARD   IN   "OMNIA.") 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  overhaul  a  motor  the  latter  will  usu- 
ally give  notice  of  the  fact  itself  by  giving  out  a  very  characteristic 
metallic  sound,  well  known  to  every  experienced  driver  under  the  name 
"knocking."  The  knocking  is  especially  pronounced  if  the  ignition  is 
advanced  slightly  too  much.  This  metallic  sound  is  the  result  of  shocks 
between  the  connecting  rod  and  the  piston  pin  ori  the  one  hand,  and 
the  connecting  rod  and  the  crank  pin  on  the  other,  due  to  play  in  the 
bushings  of  the  rod.  As  soon  as  this  knocking  becomes  at  all  pro- 
nounced it  is  advisable  to  discontinue  driving  the  car.  The  writer  has 
seen  connecting  rod  heads  worn  to  such  an  extent  as  to  split  apart. 
This  entailed  the  immediate  bending  of  the  crank  shaft,  and  the  connect- 
ing rod,  being  no  longer  maintained  in  place,  broke  at  one  stroke  through 
the  bottom  of  the  crank  case. 

The  first  precaution  to  take 
in  case  a  motor  knocks  is  to 
demount  the  cylinders,  after 
having  first  removed  the  inlet, 
exhaust  and  water  pipes.  This 
demounting  process  in  general 
does  not  involve  any  difficul- 
ties. However,  in  some  of  the 
older  types  of  motors  the  cyl- 
inder heads  are  separate,  and 
these  separate  heads  must  not 

be  taken  off,  as  it  is  very  diffi-  FIG.   160. 

cult  to  make  a  good  joint  again. 

On  the  contrary,  the  cylinder  and  head  should  be  removed  together,  as 
though  they   were  made  in  one  piece. 

After  this  has  been  done  one  may  easily  ascertain  by  means  of  the 
hands  if  there  is  any  play  at  either  end  of  /the  connecting  rod ;  if  there 
is  the  crank  shaft,  the  connecting  rods  and  the  piston  pins  must  be  taken 
apart.  In  certain  motors  this  latter  disassembling  process  is  quite  diffi- 
cult. These  are  the  motors  in  which  the  crank  shaft  is  introduced  from 
the  ends,  the  bearings  being  supported  by  end  plates  bolted  to  the  casing. 
It  is  often  a  very  difficult  job  in  the  case  of  such  motors  to  ^remove 
the  connecting  rod  caps  inside  the  crank  case,  which  must  be  done'  before 
the  crank  shaft  can  be  withdrawn. 

At  the  same  time  as  the  crank  shaft  the  cam  shaft  and  its  gearings 
must  be  taken  out.  Before  disassembling  the  cam  gearing  it  is  neces- 
sary to  mark  the  gears  by  means  of  prick  punch  marks  in  order  to  avoid 
laborious  trials  in  putting  the  gearing  together  again.  After  the  motor 
has  thus  been  disassembled,  and  all  pieces  have  been  duly  cleaned  by 
means  of  gasoline,  the  separate  parts  are  taken  in  hand  successively. 

262 


FIG.   161. 


CRANK   SHAFT. 

The  main  journals  and  the  crank  pin  journals 
must  be  carefully  examined.  As  the  crank  shaft 
is  the  most  expensive  part  of  the  motor  it  must 
be  saved  as  much  as  possible.  In  most  cases  all 
of  these  journals  will  be  found  to  have  worn 
more  or  less  oval,  but  as  in  general  the  crank 
shaft  is  not  hardened,  it  is  easy  to  true  them 
up  in  the  lathe.  For  truing  up  the  main  journal 
the  crank  shaft  is  placed  in  the  lathe  between 
centres,  but  for  truing  up  the  crank  pin  journal 
the  crank  shaft  must  be  placed  in  special  brackets, 
which  bring  the  crank  pins  in  line  with  the  lathe 
centres. 

If  there  are  no  suitable  brackets  available  a 

lead  lapping  fixture  is  made  use  of  (Fig.  160).  This  consists  of  two 
strips  of  wood,  A  and  B,  into  which  are  sunk  two  half  bushings  of  lead, 
C  and  B.  The  crank  shaft  being  centred  at  F  in  the  lathe,  the  workman 
presses  the  lead  bushings,  which  have  previously  been  covered  with 
a  paste  of  emery  and  oil,  tightly  against  the  pin.  The  lathe  is  then 
started  up  by  the  workman,  who  holds  the  "lapper"  in  his  hand,  the 
latter  working  exactly  as  a  connecting  rod.  In  this  manner  a  good 
journal  is  obtained  in  short  time. 

No  attempt  should  be  made,  however,  to  remove  much  material  from 
the  crank  shaft,  as,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  sections  are  very 
liberally  proportioned,  there  is  danger  of  breaking  the  shaft,  or,  at  least, 
of  bending  it.  A  reduction  in  diameter  of  one  sixty-fourth  inch  may  be 
considered  quite  appreciable. 

It  is  relatively  rare  that  a  crank  shaft  is  found  to  be  bent.  This  may 
occur  if  the  flywheel  of  the  motor  strikes  some  obstacle  in  the  road.  A 
bent  crank  shaft  is  nearly  always  discarded,  and  only  the  factory  which 
produced  it  can  tell  whether  it  can  be  righted  again. 

CYLINDERS,  PISTONS  AND  PISTON  RINGS. 

The  cylinders  in  the  majority  of  cases  are  slightly  ovalized.  They 
may  be  made  round  again  by  reboring  them,  provided  only  very  little 
stock  needs  to  be  removed,  for  if  considerable  material  must  be  re- 
moved it  is  necessary  to  make  new  pistons  of  a  larger  size,  which  would 
be  more  expensive  than  to  make  new  cylinders.  If  the  compression  rings 
are  worn,  they  must  be  replaced,  and  care  must  be  taken  to  nicely  fit 
and  grind  the  rings  into  the  cylinders. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  remarked  that  a  worn  cylinder  always 
has  more  or  less  the  section  shown  in  Fig.  161.  The  portion  A  of  a 
slightly  increased  diameter  is  that  where  the  piston  moves  up  and  down. 
The  compression  rings  must,  therefore,  be  forced  through  the  section 
B  and  then  expand  in  A.  It  is  this  latter  diameter  to  which  they  should 
be  adjusted.  It  is,  moreover,  a  good  plan  to  take  out  a  light  cat  at 
C  and  D  in  order  to  remove  the  lower  and  upper  shoulders  of  the 
"counterbore"  A.  If  this  is  not  done,  after  the  slack  on  the  connecting 
rod  heads  has  been  taken  up  the  piston  may  hammer  against  the  offset 
or  shoulder  and  cause  a  mysterious  noise.  Where  this  precaution  is 

263 


neglected  the  motor,  after  being  overhauled,  often  knocks  as  much  or 
more  as  before,  and  much  time  may  be  lost  in  looking  for  the  cause 
of  this  knocking. 

With  regard  to  the  pistons  there  is  little  to  be  said, 
except  that  frequently  the  compression  rings  have  too 
much  play  in  their  grooves,  which  take  on  a  section 
similar  to  that  shown  at  A,  Fig.  162.  The  piston  should 
then  be  put  into  the  lathe  and  the  grooves  turned  out 
to  the  normal  section  B,  and  special  compression  rings 
C  must  be  made  to  fit  these  grooves  without  play. 

If  the  cylinders  are  fitted  with  hand  hole  plates  or 
cover  plates   for  inspecting  the   interior  of  the  water 
jackets  these  covers   should  always  be   taken  off  and 
the  jacket  space  cleaned  of  the   deposits   of   lime,   as 
FIG.   162.  the  cylinder  walls  will  be  nearly  always  found  heavily 

incrusted.  The  valves  are  then  ground  into  their  seats, 
after  the  latter  have  first  been  trued  up  with  a  valve  seat  cutter,  if  that 
is  necessary.  The  cylinders  are  then  in  working  condition  again. 

BEARINGS  AND  BUSHINGS. 

The  bearings  (we  are  not  referring  here  to  ball  bearings,  which  are 
as  yet  very  little  used  in  automobile  motors)  are  of  two  different  kinds, 
according  to  whether  the  bushings  .are  entirely  of  bronze,  or  whether 
they  are  of  babbitt.  If  babbitt  bearings  are  used  the  babbitt  is  melted 
up  and  new  bushings  are  cast,  which  requires  a  somewhat  special  equip- 
ment. In  the  case  of  bronze  bushings,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  bushings 
are  badly  worn  there  is  no  other  course  open  than  to  replace  them  en- 
tirely. If  they  show  only  slight  wear  it  may  be  sufficient  to  repolish  them 
by  means  of  a  scraping  tool.  If  they  are  slightly  more  worn  they  may 
be  counterbored  and  lined  with  babbitt.  In  every  case  the  bushings  and 
journals  should  be  fitted  by  means  of  a  scraping  tool  and  red  lead  on  the 
shaft  until  the  bearing  is  perfect.  This  attention  must  be  given  to  the 
main  bearings  of  the  crank  shaft,  the  crank  pin  bearings  and  the  cam  shaft 
bearings.  After  the  bushings  have  thus  been  thoroughly  adjusted  one 
must  not  forget  to  place  oil  holes  in  the  proper  positions,  nor  to  cut  oil 
grooves  in  the  bushings. 

The  connecting  rods  and  the  cam  shaft  generally  wear  but  very  slightly. 
and  all  that  is  necessary  to  do  is  to  examine  them  as  to  their  straight- 
ness,  as  well  as  with  respect  to  the  keying  of  the  cams,  if  the  latter  are 
not  made  in  a  single  piece  with  the  shaft. 

ASSEMBLING. 

This  is  the  most  delicate  part  of  the  entire  process.  The  operation 
is  the  easiest  in  the  case  of  a  four  cylinder  motor  having  only  three 
crank  shaft  bearings,  especially  if  the  bearing  caps  are  independent  of 
the  crank  casing.  In  that  case  the  lower  half  of  the  crank  case  serves 
only  as  a  dust  guard  and  an  oil  well,  and  it  is  put  in  place  only  after 
all  the  bearings  have  been  completely  adjusted,  which  can  be  done  in  full 
view^of  the  operator.  Every  part  can  then  be  thoroughly  examined  from 
underneath.  Special  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  everything  turns 

264 


nicely,  that  the  connecting  rods  have  plenty  of  play  and  do  not  cram 
any  of  the  pistons  in  the  cylinders.  That  the  connecting  rod  heads  are 
properly  fitted  on  the  crank  pins  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  turn 
on  the  pins  with  some  slight  friction  without  oil.  In  the  case  of  other 
motors  the  process  of  reassembling  is  sometimes  quite  difficult.  The 
operator  must  not  be  in  haste,  and  the  process  must  be  recommenced, 
if  necessary,  a  number  of  times  until  perfect  results  are  obtained. 

After  everything  has  been  put  back  in  place  the  cam  gearing  is  taken 
in  hand,  which  is  put  in  place  easily  if  the  gears  have  been  properly 
marked;  then  the  lift  of  the  valves  is  adjusted,  either  by  filing  off  the 
valve  stems  or  by  adjusting  the  adjustable  push  rod  heads,  if  these  are 
provided. 

The  flywheel  is  then  put  back  in  place  and  the  motor  is  connected  to 
the  shop  line  shafting  by  means  of  a  belt  running  over  the  flywheel,  after 
having  first  flooded  the  crank  case  and  cylinders  with  oil.  The  pistons 
are  thus  allowed  to  run  themselves  in  for  a  couple  of  hours.  The  motor 
is  then  cleaned,  and  is  ready  to  be  placed  on  the  testing  stand,  if  one 
is  available;  if  not,  it  is  put  back  into  the  car,  which,  after  all,  is  an 
excellent  testing  stand  as  well.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  the  over- 
hauling of  a  motor  is  a  tedious  and  delicate  operation,  and  it  is  there- 
fore not  advisable  to  confide  it  to  inexperienced  hands. 


Faulty  Compression:  Its  Causes  and  Remedies. 

(ALBERT  L.  CLOUGH.) 

Upon  the  perfection  of  the  compression  attained  within  the  cylinders 
of  a  gasoline  engine  depends  in  a  very  remarkable  degree  the  character  of 
its  performance.  Its  fuel  efficiency  depends  directly  upon  the  compression, 
and  some  idea  of  the  relation  between  the  two  may  be  conveyed  by  the 
following  values  cited  from  a  competent  authority.  The  fuel  efficiency 
represents  the  fraction  of  the  energy  inherent  in  the  explosive  mixture 
which  the  engine  turns  into  useful  work,  and  hence,  as  the  rate  of 
using  fuel  per  cycle  is  fixed  by  the  dimensions  of  the  engine,  the  fuel 
efficiency  is  a  measure  of  the  work  which  it  can  do.  With  a  compres- 
sion pressure  of  38  pounds  the  ideal  efficiency  figures  out  as  33  per  cent., 
with  66  pounds  compression  40  per  cent,  and  with  88  pounds  43  per 
cent.  Actual  efficiencies  are  closely  proportional  to  these  ideal  values,  hence 
the  importance  of  keeping  the  engine  compression  near  its  original  value. 
EFFECTS  OF  FAULTY  COMPRESSION. 

A  failure  to  attain  and  to  hold  the  expected  compression  pressure  is 
always  due  to  a  lack  of  tightness  of  those  elements  which  are  supposed 
to  confine  the  gases  during  this  portion  of  the  cycle,  namely,  the  valves, 
the  cylinder  walls,  head  and  passages,  and  the  piston  and  its  packing  rings. 
Faulty  compression  acts  in  three  ways  to  reduce  the  useful  work  devel- 
oped in  each  cycle.  After  the  full  charge  has  been  drawn  into  the  cylinder 
and  the  compression  stroke  commenced,  a  portion  of  the  fuel  leaks  out 
either  into  the  crank  case  or  muffler,  or  is  pushed  back  into  the  suction 
pipe,  and  by  the  time  ignition  takes  place  there  is  a  considerably  reduced 
amount  of  fuel  within  the  cylinder.  The  condition  is,  in  effect,  as  if  a 

265 


partly  throttled  charge  instead  of  a  full  charge  had  been  admitted, 
although  in  point  of  fact  a  nearly  full  charge  of  fuel  has  been  expended. 
When  such  leaky  conditions  obtain,  not  only  is  the  initial  pressure  upon 
explosion  abnormally  low,  but  a  certain  proportion  of  the  expanded  gases 
escapes  prematurely  through  the  leaks  and  reduces  the  working  pressure 
at  an  excessive  rate,  especially  rendering  the  useful  pressure  upon  the 
piston  during  the  later  portion  of  the  stroke  much  lower  than  it  should  be. 
When  gas  is  compressed  behind  a  tight  piston  it  acts  as  a  rather  perfect 
spring,  and  is  ready,  when  released,  to  return  to  the  engine  a  portion  of 
the  energy  which  was  absorbed  in  its  compression.  When,  however,  a 
portion  of  this  gas  escapes  through  leaks,  it  expands  uselessly  outside 
the  cylinder,  and  its  energy  content  is  lost  irrevocably.  Imperfect  com- 
pression results  in  reduced  output  and  in  decreased  fuel  efficiency. 

AGGRAVATED  AT  Low  SPEEDS. 

A  cylinder  which  is  leaky  may  serve  fairly  well  at  high  speeds,  as 
the  duration  of  the  compression  period  is  so  brief  that  not  a  very  large 
part  of  the  charge  is  able  to  escape,  but  when  the  motor  is  slowed  down 
almost  to  the  laboring  point,  as  when  climbing  a  steep  hill  on  the  high 
gear,  the  effects  of  imperfectly  maintained  compression  make  themselves 
especially  manifest.  Under  such  conditions  a  longer  time  elapses  between 
the  commencement  of  the  compression  stroke  and  the  time  of  firing,  and 
also  btween  ignition  and  release,  and  a  greater  proportion  of  the  expanded 
gases  is  thus  able  to  escape  uselessly  during  the  power  stroke.  In  other 
words,  just  when  the  maximum  pulling  power  of  the  motor  is  desired  it 
is  falling  off  quite  rapidly. 

VERIFYING  FAULTY  COMPRESSION. 

In  a  single  or  even  a  double  cylinder  engine  it  is  very  easy  to  deter- 
mine whether  there  is  a  freedom  from  leaks  and  whether  the  expected 
pressure  is  attained,  by  the  "feel"  of  the  starting  crank  when  the  motor 
is  turned  over  with  the  spark  shut  off  and  the  throttle  partly  open.  If, 
when  the  engine  is  cranked  and  the  compression  stroke  begun  upon,  there 
is  a  constantly  increasing  resistance  transmitted  to  the  hand  through 
the  'starting  crank  up  to  the  time  that  the  inward  dead  centre  is  passed, 
no  matter  how  slowly  the  starting  handle  is  turned,  one  may  feel  confi- 
dent that  the  compression  is  good.  If,  on  the  contrary,  there  is  no  such 
springy^  resistance,  unless  the  engine  is  cranked  very  suddenly  and  ener- 
getically, and  if  the  compression  stroke  may  be  completed  with  very  little 
effort  when  passed  slowly  and  gradually,  the  compression  is  faulty. 

If  the  compression  were  absolutely  perfect  the  starting  handle  would 
spring  back  when  released  at  any  portion  of  the  compression  stroke,  and 
the  same  amount  of  force  would  be  required  to  turn  the  handle  to  a 
certain  point  in  the  stroke,  no  matter  how  many  trials  were  made.  The 
ideal  condition  is  seldom  if  ever  realized  in  practice,  and  after  a  certain 
number  of  trials  enough  gas  usually  leaks  out  to  enable  the  stroke  to 
be  completed  with  much  lessened  effort. 

METHOD  FOR  MULTI-CYLINDER  ENGINES. 

The  compression  strokes  of  a  four  cylinder  engine  immediately  succeed 
one  another,  so  that  one  cylinder  is  always  under  compression,  and  in 
a  six  cylinder  motor  successive  compression  strokes  overlap.  With  such 

266 


motors  it  is  not  very  easy  to  determine  whether  there  is  any  lack  of  com- 
pression, and  which  cylinder  or  cylinders  are  defective  in  this  regard, 
unless  some  precautions  are  taken. 

The  best  method  of  procedure,  then,  is  to  remove  all  the  spark  plugs 
but  one,  and  crank  the  engine.  This  will  give  a  test  of  the  compression  of 
the  cylinder,  which  is  closed  by  the  plug,  all  the  others  turning  freely. 
After  the  compression  of  this  cylinder  has  been  noted  the  plug  may  be 
removed  and  placed  in  one  of  the  other  cylinders,  the  compression  of 
which  may  then  be  tested.  All  four  or  six  cylinders  may  successively 
be  tested,  by  noting  the  manner  in  which  their  respective  compressions 
may  be  overcome  by  cranking,  and  those  which  are  unsatisfactory  may 
be  noted.  If  pet  cocks  are  provided,  the  spark  plugs  need  not  be  removed 
but  all  cocks  except  that  on  the  cylinder  being  tested  should  be  kept  open. 
AUDIBLE  INDICATIONS  OF  COMPRESSION  FAULTS. 

Sometimes  attention  may  be  called  to  faulty  compression  conditions 
in  one  cylinder  of  a  double  engine  by  the  difference  in  sound  of  the 
exhaust  puffs  of  the  two  cylinders — the  one  with  low  compression  giving 
a  relatively  weak  exhaust — and  when  the  motor  is  slowed  down  extremely 
there  may  even  be  a  noticeable  difference  in  the  vibration  of  the  engine, 
due  to  the  difference  of  the  actions  of  the  two  cylinders. 

A  cylinder  with  faulty  compression  sometimes  detracts  noticeably  from 
the  even  smoothness  of  the  exhaust  "purr"  which  a  good  four  cylinder 
motor  emits.     This  is  especially  noticeable  at  low  engine  speed. 
LOCATING  THE  LEAK. 

If  it  be  decided  that  the  compression  in  one  or  more  cylinders  of  a 
motor  is  sufficiently  unsatisfactory  to  warrant  investigation  it  becomes 
necessary  to  locate  the  exact  cause  of  the  leak.  The  first  inspection  to 
be  made  will  naturally  cover  the  inlet  and  exhaust  valves,  to  determine 
if  their  actions  are  perfect.  First  the  cap  over  the  valve  is  removed,  when 
the  valve  is  exposed  to  view,  and  may  be  removed  through  it.  A  cursory 
examination  may  immediately  show  the  valve  under  inspection  to  be 
broken,  and  in  this  case  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  frag- 
ments shall  all  be  recovered,  as  otherwise  they  may  enter  the  cylinder 
and  lead  to  serious  damage.  In  this  event  a  new  valve  must  be  supplied. 

Occasionally,  though  very  seldom,  it  happens  that  some  object  is 
drawn  through  the  carburetor,  and  is  caught  between  an  inlet  valve  and 
its  seat,  thus  preventing  its  seating  properly. 

A  broken  valve  spring  will  most  likely  be  apparent  as  soon  as  the 
valve  is  operated  by  the  ringers,  but  a  weakened  spring  may  only  be 
detected  when  its  strength  is  compared  with  its  mates.  The  valve  should 
work  with  perfect  freedom  from  sticking  or  friction  between  the  valve 
stem  and  its  guide,  as  otherwise  it  may  be  caught  open.  Unless  the 
valve  stem  is  bent,  a  little  lubrication  of  the  guide  ought  to  render  the 
valve  action  perfectly  free.  A  broken  or  weakened  spring  in  a  modern 
engine  may  readily  be  replaced. 

APPLYING  THE  SENSE  OF  TOUCH. 

If  no  obvious  valve  trouble  is  apparent,  and  still  the  cylinder  is  weak  in 
compression,  it  becomes  necessary  to  determine  whether  either  of  its  valves 
is  leaky.  The  only  sure  way  to  determine  this  requires  the  removal  of  the 

267 


intake  and  exhaust  pipes.  This  may  involve  considerable  labor,  but  it  is 
often  well  worth  while.  When  the  pipes  have  been  removed  it  is  usually 
easy  to  insert  one's  finger  into  the  inlet  and  exhaust  port  and  find  their 
respective  valves.  When  the  engine  is  set  at  the  beginning  of  the  compres 
sion  stroke  of  the  cylinder  in  question,  and  strongly  cranked,  in  case  of  a 
leak  of  any  consequence  the  air  can  be  felt  escaping.  If  the  inlet  and 
exhaust  valves  are  on  opposite  sides  of  the  head,  so  as  not  to  be  too  close 
together,  placing  the  ear  at  the  port  openings  will  serve  to  detect  leaks,  as 
the  escaping  air  will  be  heard  hissing  past  the  valve.  If  the  charge  cannot 
be  felt  or  heard  escaping  from  either  valve,  and  if  a  flame  held  close  to 
each  port  opening  is  not  blown  outward  during  the  compression  stroke 
(the  gasoline  having  been  drawn  from  the  carburetor),  the  valves  are 
tight  and  the  lack  of  compression  must  be  sought  for  elsewhere.  If  one 
of  the  valves  is  seen  to  leak  during  the  compression  stroke  it  should  be 
replaced,  or  it  may  be  ground  to  its  seat  by  the  use  of  quartz  powder  or 
emery. 

The  cap  over  each  valve  should,  of  course,  be  demonstrated  to  be  tight. 
If  these  closing  caps  are  of  the  ground  joint  type,  the  abutting  surfaces 
should  be  seen  to  be  free  from  any  foreign  particles  before  they  are  put 
together.  The  same  precaution  should  be  taken  when  replacing  the  pipes, 
if  ground  flanges  are  used,  and  if  gaskets  are  employed  they  should  be  in 
perfect  condition. 

LEAKS  AROUND  PISTON. 

If  after  the  valves  are  in  perfect  condition  there  is  still  a  lack  of  com- 
pression, the  crank  case  should  be  opened  and  the  engine  cranked  over 
compression  with  the  plugs  out  of  all  cylinders,  except  the  one  under  test 
A  hiss  of  escaping  gas  may  be  heard  when  the  ear  is  placed  at  the  crank 
case  opening,  and  this  indicates  that  there  is  a  lack  of  tightness  between 
the  cylinder  wall  and  the  piston.  Before  taking  the  trouble  of  removing 
the  cylinder  and  piston,  it  may  be  worth  while  to  make  an  attempt  to 
remedy  the  difficulty.  Sometimes,  after  long  use  and  long  periods  of  dis- 
use, especially  if  a  considerable  amount  of  poor  cylinder  oil  has  been  fed, 
and  too  rich  mixtures  used,  the  piston  packing  rings  rrfay  become  fouled 
with  carbon  and  burnt  oil,  and  thus  fail  to  spring  out  and  perform  their 
function.  A  large  quantity  of  kerosene  fed  to  the  cylinder  while  the  engine 
is  being  turned  over  will  tend  to  remove  these  deposits  and  free  the  rings, 
and  may  improve  their  fit.  This  is  hardly  likely,  however,  and  the  piston 
will  in  all  probability  have  to  be  removed.  This  will  mean  the  removal  of 
the  cap  screws,  which  are  usually  employed  to  hold  the  cylinder  base  to  the 
crank  case,  or,  in  case  two  cylinders  are  cast  together,  the  removal  of  the 
pair  which  includes  the  defective  one.  All  pipe  connections  must,  of  course, 
be  freed,  and  the  cylinder  or  cylinders  lifted  off.  The  connecting  rod  tips, 
when  freed  from  thefr  crank  pins,  allow  the  pistons  to  be  taken  off. 

INSPECTION  OF  PISTON  RINGS. 

An  inspection  of  the  piston  should  first  be  made.  One  or  more  rings 
may  be  found  broken,  in  which  case  new  ones  should  be  procured  from  the 
manufacturers.  Good  rings  can,  of  course,  be  made  and  fitted  in  any  first 
class  machine  shop,  but  unless  one  is  in  a  very  great  hurry  and  willing  to 
pay  for  a  special  job  of  this  kind,  it  is  better  to  get  them  from  the  factory, 

268 


unless  the  cylinder  itself  is  badly  worn,  in  which  case  the  regular  rings 
will  not  fill  properly. 

Sometimes,  when  rings  are  not  pinned  to  prevent  their  turning  in  their 
grooves,  they  may  turn  so  that  the  cut  in  each  one  is  in  the  same  line,  in 
which  case  the  escape  of  gas  is  facilitated.  This  very  rarely  happens,  how- 
ever. The  rings  should  be  inspected,  and  each  one  should  be  found  to 
have  worn  bright  over  its  entire  outside  surface.  If  any  portion  of  a  ring 
is  dull  and  covered  with  burned  oil,  it  is  a  sure  sign  that  it  was  not  cor- 
rectly fitted  or  that  it  has  lost  its  spring  or  worn  out  so  that  its  remaining 
resiliency  is  insufficient  to  expand  it  enough  to  cause  it  to  touch  the  cyl- 
inder walls.  If  any  one  of  the  rings  is  bright  over  its  whole  length,  it 
indicates  that  it  is  possible  to  pack  the  cylinder  by  the  use  of  rings;  that  is, 
the  cylinder  is  probably  not  so  much  out  of  shape  as  to  be  entirely  unfit  for 
use.  Although  a  ring  may  appear  to  touch  the  cylinder  wall  throughout 
its  length,  it  may  be  so  worn  and  reduced  in  outside  diameter  that  its  ends 
do  not  nearly  abut  and  leave  a  considerable  space  for  the  escape  of  gases. 
If  at  least  one  pinned  ring  seems  to  have  made  a  perfect  contact  with  the 
cylinder  wall,  a  complete  new  set  of  rings  will  probably  restore  the  com- 
pression after  they  have  worn  into  place.  If  all  the  rings  show  a  perfect 
bearing  upon  the  cylinder  wall,  the  cylinder  may  well  be  inspected  before 
they  are  disturbed.  In  putting  in  new  rings  from  the  factory  the  greatest 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  strain  them  unnecessarily,  and  if  they  do  not 
fit  their  grooves  perfectly  they  should  not  be  used.  Extra  ones  should 
be  ordered  in  case  some  are  broken  when  being  sprung  in. 

SCORED  PISTON  AND  CYLINDER.  WALLS. 

The  inspection  of  the  cylinder  should  include  running  the  hand  over  its 
bore  to  see  that  its  surface  is  perfectly  smooth.  It  may  be  found  that  it 
is  badly  scratched  in  lines  along  its  length.  Sometimes  the  piston  pin 
becomes  loosened  from  its  fastenings  and  moves  laterally,  bringing  one 
end  into  forcible  contact  with  the  cylinder  wall  and  wearing  a  groove  in  it. 
If  a  cylinder  has  been  allowed  to  run  for  a  long  time  without  oil,  it  may 
become  badly  scratched,  and  if  a  ring  breaks  there  is  a  chance  that  its 
broken  ends  may  score  the  wall,  especially  if  the  accident  was  due  to  lack 
of  lubrication  and  the  consequent  sticking  and  breakage  of  the  ring. 

REBORING  CYLINDERS. 

Cylinder  bores  after  long  usage  tend  to  wear  from  the  true  circular 
section  to  a  more  or  less  elliptical  form,  the  longer  axis  being  in  the 
plane  of  the  connecting  rod  movement.  After  a  time  a  distinct  "shoulder" 
can  be  felt  in  the  cylinder  wall  at  the  inward  limit  of  piston  travel.  The 
"shoulder"  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  plane  -"of  the  connecting  rod 
movement. 

If  measurement  of  the  bore  diameter  with  a  pair  of  inside  micrometer 
calipers  shows  that  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  in  this  plane  differs 
more  than  a  few  thousandths  from  its  diameter  in  the  opposite  plane, 
or  if  the  bore  diameter  near  the  limit  of  inward  travel  varies  much  from 
its  diameter  at  or  near  the  outer  limit  of  piston  travel,  it  is  not  unlikely 
that  the  cylinder  has  worn  into  such  shape  that  no  packing  rings  can 
make  it  perfectly  tight.  A  competent  machinist  can  advise  one  as  to 

269. 


whether  the  cylinder  is  usable  in  its  present  condition  or  whether  it 
must  be  rebored  and  a  new  piston  fitted. 

While  inspecting  the  cylinder  bore  one  may  well  examine  its  walls  for 

CRACKS,  SAND  HOLES  OR  POROUS  PLACES. 

Sometimes  these  allow  the  leakage  of  the  compressed  charge  and  also 
the  slow  entrance  of  water  from  the  jacket.  Such  defects  are  not  very 
common,  but  are  occasionally  met  with.  A  solution  of  copper  sulphate 
forced  into  them  will  precipitate  metallic  copper  and  perhaps  stop  the 
leak.  Sometimes,  by  the  use  of  a  solution  of  sal  ammoniac,  the  iron 
oxide  which  is  formed  will  plug  fine  cracks  or  small  sand  holes. 

If  reboring  of  the  cylinder  has  to  be  resorted  to  the  job  should  be 
entrusted  only  to  a  well  equipped  machine  shop,  known  for  accuracy 
of  workmanship.  Not  every  shop  which  possesses  a  lathe  large  enough 
to  swing  the  cylinder  can  do  the  work  properly.  The  best,  most  accurate 
boring  mill,  with  the  most  rigid  tool  and  most  competent  machinist,  is 
none  too  good  for  the  work.  In  the  case  of  a  single  cylinder  engine 
or  an  engine  in  which  all  the  cylinders  are  worn  out,  advantage  may 
possibly  be  taken  of  the  fact  to  have  the  cylinder  bore  slightly  increased, 
in  order  to  increase  the  power,  but  this  should  not  be  attempted  except 
after  taking  competent  advice.  Increasing  the  bore  of  one  cylinder  of 
a  multiple  engine  is  not  to  be  recommended. 

REPLACING  DAMAGED  CYLINDERS. 

Of  course,  if  one  prefers,  a  new  cylinder  may  be  ordered  from  the 
factory  to  replace  the  defective  one  if  the  other  cylinders  are  all  right, 
instead  of  reboring  the  defective  cylinder.  Probably  the  old  piston  with 
new  rings  will  work  properly  in  the  new  cylinder,  as  the  piston  itself 
wears  slowly  compared  with  its  rings.  In  extreme  cases  a  new  piston 
will  have  to  be  ordered  with  the  new  cylinder.  When  cylinders  are  rebored 
new  pistons,  of  course,  have  to  be  made.  Often  the  old  piston,  with 
slight  modifications,  may  be  used  for  a  pattern  for  casting  the  new  ones. 
Just  how  tight  a  piston  should  fit  its  bore  is  still  somewhat  a  matter 
of  dispute,  but  the  best  practice  seems  to  be  to  machine  it  to  a  very 
easy  fit  and  to  a  slightly  less  diameter  at  the  head  end  than  at  the  crank 
end  in  order  to  allow  for  the  differential  expansion  between  piston  and 
cylinder.  Fortunately  for  the  motorist's  finances  it  is  only  after  a  num- 
ber of  seasons'  use  (barring  accidents)  that  a  cylinder  which  originally 
was  true  should  become  unfit  for  use.  As  a  rule  the  fit  of  the  rings  is 
the  matter  which  most  often  determines  whether  compression  shall  be 
satisfactory  or  defective. 

-    MISCELLANEOUS  CAUSES. 

A  few  other  occasional  causes  of  loss  of  compression  remain  to  be 
mentioned.  A  very  obvious  one  is  that  of  a  broken  spark  plug.  If  the 
plug  is  loose  or  the  porcelain  has  given  way  there  may  be  an  escape  of 
gas  through  it.  A  priming  or  compression  cock  may,  in  the  course  of 
time,  become  loose  or  leaky. 

Some  of  the  older  automobile  engine  cylinders  are  cast  with  a  separate 
head,  and  a  gasket  of  asbestos  or  copper  is  used  between  the  head  and 
the  cylinder  in  order  to  secure  tightness.  The  gasket  may  blow  out  or 

270 


become  loose,  and  this  will  admit  gas  from  the  cylinder  to  the  water 
jacket,  thus  preventing  perfect  compression.  It  will  also  admit  water 
from  the  jacket  to  the  cylinder,  which  is,  in  practice,  far  more  serious. 
A  replacement  of  the  gasket  is  the  natural  remedy  for  this  condition. 
Some  air  cooled  motors  employ  separate  cylinder  heads  usually  packed 
to  the  cylinder  with  a  copper  gasket.  If  the  bolts,  which  normally  secure 
the  heads,  loosen  up  through  any  cause  there  will  be  an  escape  of  gas. 
Almost  everyone  has  noticed  that  certain  engines  give  more  power  after 
they  have  been  run  for  a  few  miles.  This  is  often  due  to  an  increased 
tightness  of  the  piston,  due  to  its  expansion  and  the  expansion  of 
the  rings  at  a  greater  rate  than  the  water  cooled  walls  of  the  cylinders. 
The  use  of  a  cylinder  oil  which  does  not  become  too  thin  when  heated 
tends  to  secure  tightness  between  the  piston  and  cylinder  walls. 


Air  Leaks  in  Gasoline  Engines. 

(ALBERT  L.  CLOUGH.) 

Air  leaks  are  a  most  prolific  cause  of  irregularities  in  the  operation 
of  vehicle  engines  of  more  than  one  cylinder.  In  fact,  it  is  not  too  much 
to  say  that  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  obscure  troubles  manifest- 
ing themselves  by  the  erratic  action  of  one  or  more  cylinders  is  traceable 
to  this  cause.  Oftentimes  carburetor  action  and  ignition  are  wrongly 
blamed  for  the  skipping  or  weak  running  of  a  particular  cylinder  or 
cylinders. 

Since  the  proportion  of  air  to  fuel  is  correctly  fixed  by  the  carburetor 
adjustments,  or  is  at  least  supposed  to  be,  the  entrance  of  additional  air 
into  the  charge  results  in  a  weak  mixture.  A  leak  may  be  so  located  as 
to  affect  one  cylinder  or  all  cylinders  to  a  variable  extent.  The  weakened 
mixture,  resulting  from  the  leak,  is  slow  burning  and,  for  a  given  degree 
of  spark  advance,  the  cylinder  in  which  it  exists  suffers  from  late  ignition, 
which  may  be  so  much  delayed  that  combustion  is  not  over  before  the 
next  charging  stroke,  in  which  event  a  "pop  back"  through  the  carburetor 
is  likely  to  occur.  The  explosion  is  a  weak  one  under  these  circumstances 
and  noticeably  different  from  those  in  the  unaffected  cylinders.  The  air 
leak  may  be  sufficient  to  reduce  the  quality  of  the  mixture  below  the 
explosive  point,  in  which  event  the  cylinder  or  cylinders  affected  will  miss. 

WORST  AT  SMALL  THROTTLES. 

The  effect  of  an  air  leak  is  serious  mainly  at  low  throttles,  for  several 
reasons.  When  the  throttle  is  wide  open  there  is  but  a  slight  degree  of 
vacuum  existing  in  the  cylinder  during  the  suction  stroke,  as  the  incoming 
gas  is  unobstructed  and  flows  in  readily  to  fill  the  piston  displacement. 
With  the  throttle  completely  closed,  and  assuming  a  tight  condition  of 
piston  and  valves,  there  is  nearly  the  full  atmospheric  pressure  acting  be- 
tween the  inside  and  outside  of  the  cylinder.  At  very  small  throttle 
openings,  such  as  are  used  when  the  engine  is  idling  or  running  slowly 
on  the  level,  the  gas  inside  the  cylinder  is  at  a  pressure  very  considerably 
below  atmosphere  and  the  ingress  of  air  through  any  leak  is  at  its  maxi- 
mum, while  with  wide  open  throttle  it  is  at  its  minimum.  Not  only  is 

271 


the  actual  amount  of  air  leaking  in  very  large  when  the  throttle  is  closed, 
but  it  bears  a  much  larger  proportion  to  the  whole  weight  of  the  small 
throttled  charge  then  sucked  in  than  it  does  to  a  full  charge  taken  at 
open  throttle. 

Furthermore,  when  an  engine  is  run  very  closely  throttled  the  propor- 
tion of  dead  clearance  gases  to  the  small  fresh  charge  admitted  is  very 
large,  and  the  resulting  mixture  is  often  very  near  the  limit  as  to  com- 
bustibility. The  addition  of  accidentally  admitted  air  to  this  very  imperfect 
gaseous  mixture  is  often  sufficient  to  prevent  regular  ignition,  although 
the  cylinder  may  "eight  cycle" — that  is,  fire  on  every  other  power  stroke, 
the  burned  gases  having  been  scavenged  during  the  inactive  portion  of 
the  cycle. 

As  the  compression  realized  when  running  on  low  throttle  is  very 
slight,  the  ignitibility  of  the  charge  is  reduced  and  only  a  slight  reduction 
of  its  richness,  due  to  an  air  leak,  is  required  to  cause  a  "skip." 

At  full  open  throttle  the  effect  of  an  air  leak,  unless  it  be  a  very  bad 
one,  is  usually  not  obvious,  or  at  least  not  serious.  '  In  the  case  of  any 
motor  showing  faulty  running  of  a  certain  cylinder,-  a  leak  of  this  kind 
should  be  searched  for  as  soon  as  the  spark  and  valve  action  has  been 
shown  to  be  faultless. 

RENDERS  STARTING  DIFFICULT. 

As  a  rule,  the  presence  of  an  air  leak  renders  an  engine  difficult  to 
start  without  excessive  priming  of  the  carburetor,  as  most  carburetors  tend 
to  deliver  a  rather  weak  mixture  when  the  motor  is  turned  over  by  hand. 
The  admission  of  accidental  air  will  often  weaken  this  below  the  point 
of  inflammability. 

An  air  leak  may  occur  either  on  the  cylinder  side  of  the  inlet  valve, 
in  which  case  the  particular  cylinder  will  be  affected,  or  it  may  be  outside 
the  inlet  valves,  in  which  event  the  action  of  all  the  cylinders  may  be 
interfered  with  more  or  less.  It  is  this  former  kind  of  leak  that  is  most 
apt  to  produce  missing  or  weak  explosions  in  a  certain  cylinder,  and  it  is 
the  latter  which  makes  an  engine  hard  to  start  or  renders  its  action 
generally  erratic,  especially  at  low  throttle  openings. 

WHERE  LEAKS  OCCUR. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  points  at  which  leaks  of  the  first  descrip- 
tion may  develop.  After  considerable  service,  especially  if,  as  is  often  the 
case,  good  lubrication  is  not  provided,  the  inlet  valve  stem  may  become 
quite  loose  in  its  guide.  A  considerable  space  is  thus  created  through 
which  air  may  enter  the  inlet  valve  chamber  and  dilute  the  charge.  In 
such  a  case  as  this  the  leak  is  so  near  one  particular  cylinder  that  the 
diluting  effect  is  mainly  felt  therein,  although  the  leak  is  into  a  space 
which  has  connection  with  the  other  cylinders.  If  the  valve  sterns  are 
bushed  and  the  wear  is  found  to  be  mainly  confined  to  the  bushing  itself,  a 
new  bushing  is  the  obvious  remedy;  but  if  the  stem  is  guided  in  the  metal 
oT  the  housing,  the  hole  requires  to  be  bored  out  and  a  special  bushing 
made  and  fitted.  Many  instances  of  weak  and  irregular  action  in  a  par- 
ticular cylinder  are  due  to  this  cause,  and  this  is  especially  true  now 
that  engines  are  required  to  be  able  to  turn  over  so  slowly  when  idling. 


Unless  the  caps  which  screw  in  over  the  inlet  and  exhaust  valves  are 
perfectly  tight  there  is  a  chance  for  the  outside  air  to  be  sucked  in  at 
these  points.  Occasionally,  when  a  cap  has  been  screwed  in  and  out 
several  times,  the  copper  gasket  which .  is  used  for  packing  becomes 
roughed  up  or  broken,  and  a  leak  takes  place  past  it  and  the  thread. 
Graphite  should  be  applied  to  the  thread  and  a  new  gasket  supplied. 
There  is  also  a  possible  chance  for  a  leak  around  the  cage  containing  the 
valve  in  case  a  "caged"  construction  is  used.  The  ground  joint  between 
the  cage  and  the  cylinder  may  not  seat  perfectly  or,  if  a  gasket  is  used 
at  this  point,  it  may  not  be  tight. 

Not  infrequently  a  spark  plug  will  be  found  which  has  an  imperfect 
thread,  which  cannot  be  made  tight  in  the  plug  hole.  A  very  small  leak 
at  the  plug  or  around  the  inlet  valve  cap  is  especially  bad,  as  the  diluting 
air  is  admitted  so  close  to  the  spark  points  that  the  mixture  is  diluted  at 
the  very  point  where  it  should  be  most  easily  ignitible.  Another  derange- 
ment, which,  while  not  strictly  an  air  leak,  may  yet  be  spoken  of  here 
is  the  imperfect  seating  of  the  exhaust  valve.  This  allows  of  exhaust 
gas  being  drawn  into  the  cylinder,  during  the  suction  stroke,  not  only 
diluting  but  fouling  the  charge.  Under  the  same  head  may  be  mentioned 
leaks  around  the  piston  rings.  This  is  less  serious,  as  regards  the  regular 
running  of  an  engine  (unless  of  very  large  amount),  than  most  other 
kinds  of  leak,  as  the  foul  gas  or  air  drawn  in  during  the  suction  stroke 
enters  the  lower  end  of  the  cylinder  space  and  does  not  so  directly  inter- 
fere with  ignition. 

Leaks  around  the  plugs,  cages,  valve  caps,  exhaust  valve  and  piston 
rings,  are  manifested  by  reduced  ability  to  maintain  compression  in  the 
cylinder  affected,  but  a  leak  around  a  valve  stem  is  not.  Oil  or  soap  suds 
flowed  around  the  valve  caps  will  show  bubbles  during  the  compression 
stroke  if  a  leak  exists.  Especially  in  the  case  of  air  cooled  cylinders  there 
is  the  possibility  of  a  crack  having  developed  in  the  cylinder  head  or  in 
the  passages  thereto.  With  a  watef  cooled  cylinder  such  a  defect  will 
manifest  itself  by  the  entrance  of  water  into  the  combustion  space,  and 
usually  by  steam  in  the  exhaust. 

SYMPTOMS  OF  LEAKS. 

Any  lack  of  tightness  between  a  branch  of  the  inlet  manifold  and  its 
port  flange  on  the  cylinder  allows  excess  air  to  be  sucked  in  therethrough. 
If  the  leak  is  very  slight  only  the  cylinder  supplied  from  the  branch  in 
question  is  usually  affected,  but  if  it  is  at  all  large  a  weakened  mixture 
may  be  supplied  to  all  the  cylinders,  and  it  may  be  next  to  impossible 
to  start  the  motor  unless  the  carburetor  is  adjusted  for  a  very  rich  mix- 
ture—so rich,  indeed,  that  satisfactory  running  on  full  throttle  will  become 
impossible  on  account  of  a  gross  excess  of  gasoline  in  the  mixture.  Such 
a  defect  as  this  is  not  evidenced  by  any  lack  of  compression,  as  the  trouble 
is  outside  the  valves.  If  the  suspected  joint  can  be  gotten  at,  oil  or  soap 
suds  flowed  around  it  will  be  seen  to  be  sucked  in  during  the  charging 
stroke.  Sometimes,  too,  the  faulty  joint,  when  taken  down,  may  show 
blackening,  due  to  the  slow  combustion  of  the  overrich  charge,  sometimes 
taken,  allowing  it  to  still  be  burning  at  the  beginning  of  the  succeeding 
suction  stroke.  These  joints  are  now  usually  ground  in  or  made  with 

273 


copper    gaskets,    some    form    of    clamp    holding    device    being    employed. 
Formerly  they  were  often  made  with  bolted  flanges. 

Inlet- manifolds  being  very  thin  castings  and  rather  difficult  to  produce 
without  imperfections,  sometimes  contain  foundry  defects  which  have  to 
be  plugged  before  the  manifold  can  be  successfully  installed  upon  an  engine. 
Occasionally  these  defective  points  open  up  in  service,  allowing  of  an  air 
leak.  If  there  are  joints  of  any  kind  in  the  main  mixture  pipe  between 
the  carburetor  and  the  branched  portion  of  the  manifold  a  leak  may  develop, 
due  to  the  loosening  up  of  these  connections.  There  is  always  a  joint 
where  the  carburetor  is  attached  to  the  piping,  and  it  has  sometimes 
happened  that  when  the  carburetor  has  been  taken  off  the  gasket  used  in 
the  replacement  has  not  insured  a  tight  joint.  A  gas  leak  at  this  point 
tends  to  make  it  difficult  or  impossible  to  start  the  motor,  and  causes 
spasmodic  running  at  any  but  quite  large  throttle  openings,  poppings  in 
the  carburetor  being  frequently  heard. 


Prevention  and  Removal  of  Carbon  Deposits. 

(ALBERT  L.  CLOUGH.) 

The  use  of  kerosene  in  the  cylinders  tends  to  prevent  deposits  from 
adhering  to  and  hardening  upon  the  piston  heads  and  cylinder  heads. 
It  also  tends  to  keep  the  valves  and  rings  clean  and  free  in  operation. 

After  each  two  or  three  hundred  miles  of  driving  it  is  a  good  idea  to 
inject  into  each  cylinder  through  the  spark  plug  hole  or  pet  cock  two  or 
three  tablespoonfuls  of  kerosene,  while  the  motor  is  fully  warmed  up. 
This  should  be  allowed  to  remain  over  night,  when  it  is  cleaned  out  of 
the  cylinders  during  the  next  day's  running.  Account  should  be  taken 
of  the  fact  that  the  kerosene  works  down  into  the  crank  case  and  tends 
to  thin  the  oil  therein,  and  the  supply  of  fresh  oil  may  be  advisable 
after  the  above  treatment  has  been  applied. 

Kerosene  may  also  be  introduced  in  such  a  manner  as  to  clean  the 
valves  by  injecting  it  gradually  into  the  carburetor  air  valve  when  the 
motor  is  running,  using  a  squirt  can  to  feed  the  fluid,  and  applying  per- 
haps half  a  pint  in  all. 

Despite  the  use  of  kerosene,  carbon  deposits  will  in  time  collect  within 
the  engine  combustion  space  and  finally  require  removal.  They  may  be 
removed  mechanically  or  by  the  use  of  one  of  the  solvent  preparations 
known  as  decarbonizers.  Mechanical  removal  implies  the  scraping  of  the 
piston  heads,  valve  seats  and  other  parts,  small  special  scrapers  being  used, 
which  can  either  be  bought  outright  or  forged  out  by  a  tool  maker.  In 
some  few  engines  the  piston  heads  may  be  pretty  well  cleaned  by  insert- 
ing the  scraper  through  overhead  valve  ports.  In  some  other  construc- 
tions the  cylinder  heads  are  removable,  and  when  so  removed  the  piston 
heads  are  fully  exposed  and  may  be  cleaned  with  an  ordinary  machinist's 
scraper.  In  some  other  engines  a  large  plug  is  screwed  into  the  cylinder 
head  which,  when  removed,  allows  the  scraper  to  be  used.  However,  most 
engines  having  pocketed  valves  must  needs  be  disassembled  to  allow  of 
scraping.  Under  these  conditions  the  cylinders  are  removed  from  the 
crank  case  and  cleaned  very  handily,  the  greater  part  of  the  work  being 

274 


that  of  taking  the  motor  down  and  assembling  it.  Occasionally  an  engine 
will  be  found  so  designed  that  the  pistons  and  Tods  may  be  removed 
through  the  hand  holes  of  the  crank  case,  thus  obviating  the  necessity 
of  disassembling.  As  a  rule  the  valves  will  require  regrinding  after  de- 
carbonization  has  been  performed. 

In  order  to  mechanically  decarbonize  a  motor  without  disassembling 
it,  it  has  been  proposed  to  insert  into  the  combustion  space  some  metallic 
object,  the  striking  of  which  against  the  piston  and  cylinder  heads,  when 
the  engine  is  run,  tends  to  clean  off  the  deposits.  Good  sized  steel  balls 
or  one  of  the  common  metal  wash-rags  made  up  of  interlaced  rings  have 
been  proposed  for  this  purpose.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  what- 
ever be  used  should  be  free  from  the  danger  of  catching  under  the  valves, 
wedging  between  the  piston  and  head,  or  otherwise  causing  injury  to  the 
motor.  This  method  should  be  used,  if  at  all,  with  caution. 

Fluid  decarbonizers  are  liquids  which  have  the  power  of  softening  the 
binding  material  which  holds  the  carbon  particles  in  the  form  of  a  hard 
crust  or  scale  upon  piston  heads  and  other  parts.  When  so  softened, 
the  accumulations  are  blown  out  through  the  exhaust  when  the  engine 
is  run.  The  usual  practice  is  to  supply  a  certain  amount  of  the  "decar- 
bonizer" to  one  cylinder  at  a  time,  allow  it  to  stand  for  a  prescribed 
length  of  time  and  then  run  the  engine.  After  all  cylinders  have  been 
treated,  fresh  oil  is  supplied  to  the  motor  and  the  valves  are  reground. 
as  particles  of  the  deposits  are  frequently  found  under  the  valve  seats. 

The  occasional  use  of  a  "decarbonizer"  is  claimed  to  keep  down  the 
deposits  to  a  harmless  point.  When  used,  the  directions  furnished  should 
be  carefully  followed. 


Fitting  a  New  Leather  to  a  Cone  Clutch. 

When  a  new  leather  is  to  be  fitted  the  clutch  should  be  removed  from 
the  car  and  taken  apart  and  the  worn  out  leather  removed.  The  rivets 
can  usually  be  punched  out  with  a  piece  of  round  stock  after  the  burr  or 
"upset"  has  been  cut  away  with  a  chisel.  The  old  leather  should  be  used 
as  a  pattern,  the  new  piece  being  considerably  thicker  and  with  a  uniform 
surface,  or  as  nearly  uniform  a  one  as  can  be  obtained.  With  stiff  leather 
an  oil  dressing  should  be  given  and  the  treated  leather  hung  up  for  some 
time,  say  a  day  or  two. 

The  trick  is  to  get  the  leather  stretched  tight  and  true  on  the  cone. 
One  end  is  cut  square  and  secured  by  a  rivet,  the  other  is  then  brought 
around  to  meet  it.  The  leather  must  be  only  two-thirds  on  the  cone  at 
this  stage.  All  that  is  left  now  is  to  draw  up  the  leather  on  the  cone, 
drill  the  holes  and  countersink  them,  and  then  "in  with  the  rivets."  This 
is  much  better  than  cutting  the  holes  in  the  new  leather  beforehand,  as 
when  it  is  applied  the  holes  do  not  usually  square  up.  The  cone  should 
be  chucked  in  a  lathe  and  the  leather  trued  up,  or  a  file  used  for  the 
same  purpose  if  no  lathe  is  at  hand.  Any  high  spots  will  show  up  after 
the  clutch  has  been  running  in  the  car  for  some  little  time,  and  these 
can  be  smoothed  down  afterward.  It  usually  takes  some  time  before 
the  new  leather  has  a  good  working  surface.  Asbestos  fabric  such  as 
used  for  brake  bands  may  also -be  applied  to  cone  clutches. 

275 


Truing  Up  a  Brake  Drum. 

(A.   P.    PRESS.) 

If  a  brake  drum  is  "out  of  true"  no  brake  will  operate  properly,  and 
the  object  of  the  present  article  is  to  show  how  the  drum  can  be  made 
to  run  true. 

If  the  drum  is  made  integral  with  the  hub  casting,  as  it  is  in  some  of 
the  smaller  cars,  it  can  only  be  trued  in  the  lathe,  which  is  a  machine 
shop  job,  but  if  it  is  bolted  to  the  spokes  it  can  be  made  to  run  as  well 
again  as  when  it  left  the  wheel  maker's,  and  perhaps  better. 

Jack  up  the  car  at  the  side  where  the  drum  is  out,  so  the  wheel  can 
be  taken  off  and  the  drum  removed.  Put  the  wheel  back  and  put  the 
wheel  nuts  on.  Take  the  wheel  and  true  off  the  seat  where  the  drum  goes. 
This  can  be  done  by  using  a  rest  and  a  sharp  chisel.  It  will  take  two 
persons  to  do  this,  one  to  turn  the  wheel  and  the  other  to  hold  and  use 
the  chisel,  the  same  as  in  wood  turning. 

The  spokes  being  faced  off,  take  off  the  wheel  and  put  on  the  drum 
with  two  small  bolts.  That  is,  if  the  wheel  bolts  are  three-eighth  inch 
vise  a  five-sixteenth  inch  bolt  and  tighten  as  hard  as  possible,  and  still  move 
the  drum  with  a  smart  blow  with  a  wood  mallet.  Put  the  wheel  back 
on  the  axle  and  turn  it  the  same  as  in  truing  off  the  spokes,  holding 
a  piece  of  chalk  on  the  outside  of  the  drum,  if  the  brakes  are  of  the 
contracting  type,  or  inside  if  they  are  of  the  expanding  type.  Strike  on 
the  high  side  with  the  mallet  to  knock  the  drum  true,  and  try  with  the 
chalk  again.  Continue  in  this  manner  until  the  drum  runs  perfectly  true, 
and  tighten  the  two  bolts  very  tight.  Now,  take  a  twist  drill  or  a  reamer 
the  size  of  the  wheel  bolt  (don't  try  to  use  a  carpenter's  bit)  and  ream 
out  each  hole  true  with  the  hole  in  the  drum.  The  drum  being  of  metal, 
it  will  guide  the  reamer  to  cut  the  hole  in  the  spoke  true  with  itself. 
Now  take  the  wheel  bolts  and  put  them  in,  taking  care  to  put  them  in 
opposite  to  each  other,  and  to  tighten  them  equally  hard.  Put  in  four 
bolts  in  this  manner,  and  then  ream  and  put  in  the  other  eight  bolts.  If 
the  bolts  are  all  too  large  to  fit  the  holes  dip  them  in  white  lead.  This 
will  make  them  hold  and  also  stop  them  from  rusting.  A  drum  can  be 


THE   HORSELESS  AGF 

FIG.   163. — CLUTCH  BRAKE. 
276 


trued  in  this  manner  to   within   i-ioo  of  an  inch,  which  is  near  enough 
for  all  practical  purposes. 


Clutch  Retarders. 

The  ordinary  cone  clutch,  unless  made  with  an  aluminum  spider  or 
frame,  is  usually  quite  heavy,  consequently  it  "spins"  more  or  less  when 
drawn,  making  gear-changing  less  easy  than  with  a  lighter  clutch.  A 
damper  or  brake  can  be  constructed  to  check  the  spinning  when  the 
clutch  is  fully  drawn ;  this  may  be  simply  a  small  block  of  metal,  leather 
or  fibre  faced,  fastened  to  the  cross-member  or  clutch  actuating  tube,  or 
the  pivoted  lever  which  acts  as  the  clutch  is  drawn  by  means  of  the 
pedal.  Fig.  163  shows  two  methods  by  which  this  "damping"  is  accom- 
plished. As  the  clutch  is  drawn  it  meets  the  brake  and  its  momentum  is 
overcome.  -In  the  second  sketch  the  brake  arm  falls  to  the  dotted  posi- 
tion to  act. 


Bushing  a  Gear  Shifting  Rod. 

(F.  E.  WATTS.) 

In  a  certain  rather  old  style  car  the  rod  for  shifting  the  gears  slid 
through  holes  drilled  in  the  gear  case.  The  case  was  of  cast  iron, 
and  since  the  walls  were  only  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and  there 

were  no  bosses  where  the  holes  for 
the   shifting  rod  were  drilled,  these 
holes   soon  wore  oval,  being  nearly 
...    x  one-quarter   of  an   inch   larger   than 

'.  -.    ._"i    i)      the  rod  on  their  longest  dimension 
This  not  only  made  the  gears  shift 
THE  HORSELESS  AGE  badly,   but  allowed   a   good   deal   of 

oil  to  escape. 

The    trouble    was    remedied    by 
FIG.  164.— BEARING  FOR  GEAR  SHIFT-      making    two    bushings     from    hard 
ING  ROD  brass  rod.    The  holes  in  the  case  were 

filed  round,  so  as  to  be  a  snug  fit 

over  the  small  diameter  of  the  bushing.     The  bushings  were  secured  by 

riveting,  as  shown  in  Fig.  164.     The  dotted  lines  show  the  original  shape 

'  of  the  small  end  of  the  bushing,  which  was  countersunk  to  make  riveting 

easier.    The  holes  for  the  rod  were  originally  a  little  loose,  and  the  parts 

'  went   together   with   very   little    scraping.     The   fits   were    found   to   be 

good  enough,  so  that  the  leakage  of  oil  was  not  objectionable. 


"Gate"  for  the  Reverse  Slot. 

The  majority  of  American  cars  with  selective  type  of  change  gear 
have  only  three  forward  speeds.  This  means  that  the  quadrant  in  which 
the  change  gear  lever  works  has  but  two  slots,  one  usually  having  the 
low  and  the  reverse  gear  positions  at  the  two  ends,  respectively,  and 
consequently  a  false  movement  may  mesh  the  reverse  when  the  low.  for- 
ward is  intended.  In  several  instances  when  this  has  occurred  the  bot- 
tom of  the  gear  box  was  sprinkled  with  broken  teeth  or  the  drive  shaft 
converted  to  a  crude  corkscrew. 

277 


To  prevent  any  possibility  of 
such  misfortunes  a  gate  can  be 
fitted.  This  need  not  extend  com- 
pletely across  the  slot,  but  just 
sufficiently  to  cause  a  check  to  the 
lever.  Two  such  gates  are  shown, 
(Fig.  165)  one  for  quadrants  sepa- 
rated from  the  body  and  the  other 
for  those  sunk  in  the  floor  boards. 
The  pedal  A  is  so  arranged  in  both 
cases  that  by  depressing  it  the  gate 
C  is  removed  from  the  slot,  allow- 


For  5vnkQu<lTemt& 

FIG.  165. — DETAILS  OF  "GATE." 

^~  ing  the  lever  to  enter.  This  neces- 
sitates a  special  motion  with  the  foot  before  the  reverse  can  be  meshed, 
while  those  systems  which  depend  upon  the  pressure  of  a  thumb  latch 
rather  facilitate  the  unintentional  meshing  of  the  reverse,  as  the  thumb 
naturally  falls  on  the  latch  when  the  lever  is  grasped.  In  the  figures 
B  is  the  pivot  on  which  the  gate  works  and  D  is  a  spring  to  keep  the 
gate  in  the  closed  position.  The  back  face  of  C  is  profiled  so  as  to  allow 
the  lever  to  pass  it  without  the  necessity  of  depressing  the  pedal.  The 
fittings  may  be  made  of  3-16x1  inch  hard  brass  in  the  original,  piece  B 
being  fastened  to  the  quadrant  by  rivets  or  short  bolts.  Steel  with 'a 
brass  finish  can  also  be  used,  and  a  good  blacksmith  can  do  the  work 
in  a  short  time,  except  any  plating,  which,  of  course,  is  outside  of  his 
line. 


Repairing  a  Cut  Shaft. 

(H.   P.   COLEMAN.) 

A  shaft  which  has  become  badly  worn  and  cut  may  sometimes  be 
repaired  as  follows:  The  shaft  is  turned  down  as  little  as  possible,  just 
enough  to  take  off  the  cut  surface,  going  down  within,  say,  one-sixty- 
fourth  inch  of  the  worst  cut  place,  but  leaving  it  as  large  as  possible  so 
as  not  to  weaken  the  shaft  any  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary,  and 
at  the  same  time  getting  it  as  near  as  possible  to  a  standard  size  of 
seamless  steel  tubing  inside  measurements,  which  can  be  had  in  one- 
thirty-second  inch  sizes.  The  ends  of  the  turned  off  portion  of  the 
shaft  should  be  left  with  a  nice  ground  corner  or  fillet  for  strength.  The 
piece  of  tubing,  which  is  to  be  sawed  through  lengthwise  of  the  tube  on 
one  side,  is  cut  off  just  the  length  of  the  turned  part  of  the  shaft,  and 
the  inside  ends  are  rounded  so  as  to  fit  the  fillet  on  the  shaft.  The  tube 
is  chosen  of  such  gauge  that  it  will  fill  the  turned  off  part  on  the  shaft 
and  stand  above  the  old  diameter  at  least  one-thirty-second  inch.  The 
tube  mast  be  bright  and  clean  inside.  Now  wedge  a  screwdriver  or  chisel 
into  the  sawed  slot  in  the  tube  to  open  it,  telescope  it  over  the  shaft  and  fit 
into  place  where  it  can  be  coupled,  or,  rather,  clamped  together,  so  the  edges 
of  the  sawed  tube  will  butt  together  or  within  one-sixty-fourth  inch,  and  fit 
the  shaft.  Wind  the  tube  with  soft  iron  wire  of  about  No.  14  gauge,  twist- 
ing the  ends  together  and  pounding  down  close  against  the  shaft,  so  they 
will  not  loosen  with  the  heat,  as  the  joint  must  be  brazed,  filling  up  the 

278 


cracks  with  brass.  The  shaft  can  now  he  turned  off  to  its  original  size,  and 
if  the  job  has  been  done  well  only  a  fine  brass  line  can  be  seen  where  the 
parts  are  joined,  and  a  neat  job  is  the  result. 


A  Temporary  Replacement  for  a  Broken  Cardan  Pin. 

The  pin  coupling  the  Cardan  shaft  yoke  to  the  universal  joint  spider 
occasionally  gets  broken  by  sudden  shock  or  comes  away,  due  to  not 
being  properly  retained  in  place  by  its  locknut.  In  the  former  case  the 
pin  cannot  be  put  into  place  again,  and  as  a  spare  pin  is  not  usually 
carried,  recourse  must  be  had  to  something  on  or  about  the  car  if  a 
blacksmith  or  repairer  is  not  close  at  hand.  One  of  the  cables  operating 
the  hub  brakes  can  be  removed  and  put  in  in  place  of  the  pin,  thread- 
ing the  cable  in  and  out  of  the  holes  in  the  yoke  and  spider,  taking  care 
to  avoid  abrupt  bends  in  the  cable  in  so  doing.  The  cable  can  then  be 
fastened  upon  itself  by  twisting  or  knotting  by  means  of  a  pair  of  pliers. 
The  repair  is  only  temporary,  and  care  must  be  taken  in  driving  that  no 
great  strain  breaks  or  loosens  the  cable,  and  also  because  one  of  the 
brakes  only  is  in  service,  and  an  application  of  the  brake  lever  would 
cause  a  skid.  If  the  motorist  has  his  hub  brakes  operated  by  rods  instead 
of  cables  one  of  the  rods  doubled  upon  itself  and  wired  in  place  could 
be  used  instead  of  the  cable. 


Repairing  Broken  Teeth  in  a  Main  Driving  Pinion. 

(G.  S.  GRANLUND.) 

Such  a  gear  broken  as  shown  in  (i  and  2)  Fig.  166  may  be  repaired 
in- the  following  manner:  The  pinion  if  hardened  must  be  drawn.     After 


tfew  of  Top  of  Tteth. 


FIG.  166. 
279 


that  two  slots  are  milled  in  the  hub,  as  shown  at  6.  Two  pieces  of  35 
per  cent,  carbon  steel  are  machined  so  as  to  fit  these  slots  with  a  driv- 
ing fit,  and  provision  made  to  rivet  over  the  ends,  as  shown  at  5.  The 
hub  is  then  placed  in  the  gear  shaper  and  the  two  pieces  of  steel  shaped 
to  the  correct  contour  of  the  sound  teeth.  The  pinion  is  then  case 
hardened. 


Frame  Trussing. 

It  may  sometimes  be  found  that  a  car  frame  is  not  sufficiently  strong 
at  the  point  of  offset,  so  a  strut  may  be  placed  on  one  cross  member  and 
a  tie  rod  arranged  as  in  Fig.  167.  Here  A  is  the  strut,  T  T'  the  tie  rod. 


FIG.  167. 

B  B  the  nuts  holding  its  ends  through  the  web  of  the  frame  D.  C  is  the 
cross  member  bolted  to  D.  Fig.  168  shows  in  a  somewhat  exaggerated 
form  the  result  after  three  months'  use.  The  frame  D  has  sagged  just 
at  the  offset,  while  the  forward  end  of  the  tie  rod  is  curved  and  naturally 
useless.  This  distortion  was  occasioned  by  the  strut  A  bending  the 
cross  member  C  upward,  thus  allowing  the  frame  to  sag.  As  a  result. 


HE   HORSELESS  AGE 


FIG.  168. 

the  strut  had  to  be  removed,  the  frame  and  cross  member  straightened, 
and  a  longer  strut,  bolted  to  the  frame  itself,  used.  The  one  illustrated 
was  2*4  inches  long,  while  the  new  strut  is  &/2  inches  long,  and  so  far 
has  given  perfect  service. 


Straightening  an  Automobile  Axle. 

On  light  machines  much  time  and  expense  can  often  be  saved  by  using 
the  following  method  for  straightening  a  bent  axle  (Fig.  169)  :  Place  the 
machine  with  the  axle  that  is  to  be  straightened  directly  under  and 
parallel  to  one  of  the  heavy  cross  timbers  on  the  second  floor  of  the 
garage.  Next  take  two  4x4  inch  timbers,  and  cut  them  just  long  enough 
to  reach  from  the  top  of  the  axle  to  the  bottom  of  the  cross  timber.  Place 
one  of  the  timbers  on  each  end  of  the  axle  and  drive  a  small  wedge 
under  each  to  hold  it  in  place.  Now  place  an  ordinary  screw  jack 

280 


on  the  floor  directly  under  the  bend,  and  apply  as  much  pressure  as  is 
necessary  to  spring  it  back  into  place.     If  the  axle  is  very  stiff  it  is  a 


FIG.  169. — STRAIGHTENING  A  BENT  FRONT  AXLE. 

good  plan  to  place  a  piece  of  band  iron  between  the  axle  and  the  timber 
to  prevent  the  timber  from  splitting. 


Emergency  Wheel  Repair. 

The  following  is  a  suggestion  which  may  enable  a  car  to  return  under 
its  own  power  even  when  the  spokes  of  a  wheel  are  completely  broken : 
Two  boards  are  cut,  as  shown  in  Fig.  lopA,  and  the  finger-like  projections 
forced  into  the  rim.  The  "wheel"  is  then  mounted  on  the  hub,  from 


Iff?. 


FIG.  1 69  A. 

which  the  spokes  have  been  removed,  and  the  new  arrangement  fastened 
by  wedges  and  wire.  Needless  to  say,  it  is  not  a  construction  for  60 
miles  per  hour,  but  it  should  suffice  to  carry  the  party  to  their  destination. 


Emergency  Methods  of  Fastening  Nuts. 

On  cheaper  cars  the  nuts  are,  as  a  general  rule,  not  castellated.  Instead 
they  are  usually  furnished  with  a  teat,  as  shown  in  Fig.  170,  allowing  a 
space  A  between  the  nut  and  cotter  pin.  The  only  object  of  the  cotter 

281 


pin  in  this  case  is  to  prevent  the  nut  being  lost,  as  the  bolt  itself  loosens 
up  in  a  very  short  time.  The  writer  has  tried  various  schemes  to  prevent 
the  nut  from  loosening  at  all.  In  2  two  washers  (or  more)  are  placed 
under  the  nut,  so  that  the  cotter  pin  is  driven  through  its  hole.  This 
method  is  not  very  good,  as  several  threads  of  the  nut  are  useless  for 


Fig.  4 


HE    HOUSELESS    »OE 


FIG.  170. 

holding  the  bolt  tight.  In  3  a  washer  is  placed  over  the  teat,  and  the 
cotter  pin  driven  in.  If  washers  are  not  handy  a  wire  nail  may  be 
used,  the  head  of  the  nail  being  large  enough  to  touch  the  top  of  the 
nut  securely. 


Removing  Refractory  Nuts. 

The  penetrating  powers  of  kerosene  are  not  fully  appreciated.  When 
a  nut  or  bolt  sticks  and  cannot  be  unscrewed  with  a  spanner  as  long 
as  one  dare  use,  kerosene  is  the  remedy.  It  should  be  squirted  all  round 
the  stubborn  thread.  From  time  to  time  we  have  been  told  by  mo- 
torists to  whom  we  have  suggested  this  method  that  it  has  failed. 
Except  in  quite  unusual  cases  this  failure  has  been  due  to  lack 
of  patience.  It  must  not  be  expected  the  moment  the  kerosene 
has  been  applied  to  the  thread  that  the  trouble  will  be  over.  The  nut  or 
bolt  should  be  left  for  several  hours  for  the  kerosene  to  soak  in;  then 
it  is  almost  certain  to  penetrate.  When  the  nut  is  in  such  a  position  that 
kerosene  runs  away  without  soaking  into  the  thread  it  is  necessary  to 
rig  up  some  little  dodge  for  stopping  this.  A  simple  way  is  to  wrap 
a  rag  round  the  nut  and  thoroughly  saturate  it  in  kerosene,  or,  in  extreme 
cases,  to  file  a  little  channel  on  or  about  the  nut  or  bolt  head,  so  that 
some  of  the  kerosene  is  retained  and  left  to  soak  into  the  thread. — Autocar. 


Oxidizing  Brass  Parts. 

(JOHN  W.  FEW,  JR.) 

To  secure  a  copper  oxide  finish  on  brass  parts  the  following  instructions 
should  be  followed :  The  brass  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  then  copper 


plated;  afterward  it  is  rubbed  off  on  a  soft  wheel.  Again  it  is  copper 
plated,  and  after  being  thoroughly  dried  is  immersed  in  a  solution  ot 
sulphate  of  potassium.  After  being  thoroughly  dry  it  is  burnished.  To 
lighten  up  its  appearance  it  can  be  cut  through  in  spots  to  the  copper, 
giving  a  streak  or  point  here  and  there  of  a  copper  coler.  This  is  done  on 
a  felt  wheel.  Most  persons  are  acquainted  with  the  appearance  of  copper 
oxide  as  seen  on  door  plates,  desk  fixtures  and  knobs,  and  any  well 
equipped  plating  company  can  do  the  work. 

Some  prefer  the  black  but  highly  polished  surface  secured  by  immers- 
ing the  brass  parts  in  a  bath  of  copper  and  ammonia,  and  then  polishing. 
This  also  can  be  cut  through  in  spots,  showing  the  brass  beneath.  The 
latter  treatment,  however,  cannot  be  given  an  article  containing  copper, 
as  the  copper  will  not  "take."  Both  finishes  are  durable  and  the  appear- 
ance of  the  car  is  enhanced.  A  slight  rub  with  a  dry  cloth  occasionally 
will  suffice  to  keep  the  surface  clean  and  in  excellent  condition. 


Preserving  Rubber  Mats. 

Usually  after  rubber  matting  has  been  in  use  for  a  time  its  uniform 
gray  disappears,  the  oil  and  grease  collecting  upon  it  from  boots  and  by 
dripping  tending  to  rot  and  discolor  it.  To  prevent  the  destruction  and 
discoloration  the  matting  should  be  painted  with  lead  color  paint,  which 
when  dry  gives  a  varnished  surface.  Not  only  is  this  oil-proof  but  it 
gives  a  bright  look  to  the  matting  and  renders  it  easily  cleaned  by  means 
of  a  cloth. 


WINTER  USE  OF  AUTOMOBILES. 


Cold  Weather  Precautions. 

(ALBERT  L.  CLOUGH.) 

One  may  say  that  the  technical  difficulties  of  operating  a  motor  vehicle 
during  cold  weather  are  four  in  number: 

1.  Difficulty  of  securing  correct  gasoline  mixtures  at  low  temperature 
and  hence  trouble  in  starting. 

2.  Irregularities  of  lubrication   due   to   increased   viscosity   of  oils   at 
low  temperature. 

3.  Danger  of  freezing  of  pipes,  jackets,  tanks,  etc. 

4.  The  difficulty  of  securing  sufficient  traction. 

CARBURATION. 

The  capacity  of  air  for  gasoline  vapor  at  low  temperature  is  quite 
small.  The  lower  the  temperature  of  the  air  the  less  gasoline  it  will 
hold,  and  a  point  is  finally  reached  when  it  will  absorb  so  little  of  the  ex- 
plosive as  to  render  the  mixture  imperfectly  combustible.  When  it  is 
attempted  to  operate  a  gasoline  engine  at  such  a  temperature  it  is  found 
impossible  to  secure  proper  explosions.  However,  at  almost  all  tempera- 
tures commonly  met  with  in  this  climate,  gasoline  is  sufficiently  volatile 
to  give  practical  results,  especially  if  the  air  be  heated  artificially  before 
entering  the  carburetor.  Gasoline  automobiles  for  winter  use  should  have 
some  provision  for  heating  the  air  used  in  forming  the  explosive  mixture. 
This  is  accomplished  ordinarily  by  making  use  of  the  heat  from  the 
water  circulation  system.  A  carburetor  provided  with  artificial  heat  will 
furnish  a  proper  mixture  to  its  engine  after  it  is  fairly  .in  operation,  but 
it  is  sometimes  a  puzzle  to  secure  the  first  explosion  of  a  motor  which 
is  cold  and  taking  air  at  a  low  temperature.  It  is  obvious  that  the  heat 
necessary  to  vaporize  the  gasoline  for  the  first  explosion  must  all  come 
from  the  metal  of  the  carburetor  or  from  the  surrounding  air,  and  when 
both  are  in  a  cooled  condition  there  is  little  tendency  for  a  proper  evapora- 
tion of  the  liquid  which  is  chilled  by  contact  with  the  cooled  metal.  After 
the  carburetor  does  give  a  good  mixture  it  may,  under  some  conditions 
of  low  temperature,  be  condensed  in  the  cold  cylinder,  and  if  the  air 
happens  to  be  warmer  than  the  engine,  moisture  may  be  condensed  upon 
the  spark  plugs  and  even  affect  the  sparking.  An  engine  which  cannot 
be  started  on  account  of  the  cold  can  sometimes  be  made  to  operate  by 
filling  the  water  jacket  with  hot  water  and  by  pouring  hot  water  over 
the  carburetor,  air  inlet  pipe  and  the  mixture  pipe  or  by  laying  cloths 
wrung  out  in  hot  water  upon  these  parts.  Such  treatment  is  generally 
successful. 

The  "priming"  of  the  cylinders  with  gasoline  by  injecting  a  small 
quantity  into  each  through  the  spark  plug  holes  or  priming  cocks  is  often 


Q£  great  assistance  in  securing  the  first  explosions.  A  mixture  of  gasoline 
and  ether  is  recommended  for  priming  purposes  in  very  cold  weather, 
as  ether  is  more  volatile  than  gasoline.  Sometimes  the  carburetor  may 
be  conveniently  wanned  by  leaving  a  lighted  incandescent  lamp  near  it 
for  an  hour  or  two  with  the  hood  tightly  closed  and  covered  with  robes 
or  blankets.  After  the  car  has  been  in  operation  for  some  time,  it  may 
be  left  standing  out  of  doors  for  a  considerable  period  with  the  engine 
shut  down  and  still  no  difficulty  will  be  found  at  starting  it  up.  If  the 
water  and  the  metal  have  been  quite  thoroughly  heated  up,  they  part 
with  their  heat  quite  slowly.  It  is  advisable  to  throw  the  robe  over  the 
radiator  and  hood  while  the  engine  is  stopped,  in  order  to  confine  the 
heat,  or  an  engine  hood  cover  specially  intended  for  this  purpose  may  be 
obtained.  These  hoods  are  of  highly  non-conductive  fabric  and  fit  closely 
over  the  hood  and  radiator. 

One  can  say,  in  general,  that  there  is  no  difficulty  in  keeping  a  gasoline 
engine  which  is  suitably  supplied  with  warmed  air  in  continuous  operation 
at  any  winter  temperature,  after  it  is  once  started,  and  that  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  starting  an  engine,  no  matter  how  cold  it  may  be,  if  the  pro- 
cedure recommended  be  followed.  In  starting  from  a  warm  stable  there  is 
obviously  no  difficulty,  and  there  should  be  no  difficulty  found  in  starting 
after  a  stop  of  any  reasonable  duration  in  the  open  air. 

LUBRICATION. 

There  need  be  no  very  serious  trouble  in  the  lubrication  of  an  auto- 
mobile kept  in  a  heated  stable,  because  the  machine  starts  out  with  its 
lubrication  normal,  and  under  all  ordinary  conditions  the  heat  developed 
by  the  engine  prevents  the  chilling  and  stiffening  of  the  lubricants.  With 
the  mechanical  lubricators  now  so  generally  used  the  thickening  of  the 
oil  due  to  cold  is  of  comparatively  little  moment,  for  about  the  same 
amount  of  lubricant  is  circulated  in  a  given  time,  whether  it  is  thick  or 
thin.  The  automobilist  who  has  no  heated  stable  is  likely  to  have  some 
trouble  with  his  lubrication.  The  oil  in  the  various  bearings  will  be  so 
thick  that  the  engine  will  turn  over  with  difficulty,  and  the  heavy  lubricant 
in  the  gear  box  and  drive  gear  housing  may  become  so  nearly  solid  as 
to  lubricate  very  imperfectly.  In  general  somewhat  thinner  oils  may 
profitably  be  used  in  winter  than  in  summer,  especially  in  the  gear  cases, 
which  receive  very  little  heat  from  the  motor.  In  these  cases  a  larger 
proportion  of  rather  thinnish  oil  and  a  less  proportion  of  grease  should 
be  used  in  cold  than  in  warm  weather.  On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said 
that  if  an  automobile  equipped  with  a  system  of  forced  lubrication  be 
kept  in  a  heated  stable  (which  is  a  sine  qua  non  of  "the  winter  use 
of  automobiles),  and  oils  of  the  proper  character  are  made  use  of,  there 
should  be  no  serious  troubles  with  lubrication. 

ANTI-FREEZE  SOLUTION. 

Every  year  when  the  cold  season  arrives  the  users  of  gasoline  machines 
prepare  to  substitute  for  the  cooling  water  in  their  tanks  some  anti- 
freeze solution,  but  there  are  usually  some  unfortunate  and  belated 
individuals  who  neglect  this  until  on  some  sharp  night  their  radiators 
freeze  and  crack,  or — what  is  infinitely  worse — the  water  in  the  engine 

285 


jacket  freezes  and  splits  the  cylinder  casting,  necessitating  an  expensive 
renewal  of  the  injured  part.  Fortunately,  means  are  at  hand  for  remov- 
ing this  danger.  Anti-freeze  solutions  are  cheap  and  effective.  A  mixture 
of  water  and  denatured  alcohol  is  the  most  commonly  used  non-freezing 
solution,  but  mixtures  of  glycerine  and  water  and  a  solution  of  calcium 
chloride  in  water  are  also  extensively  used  and  are  perfectly  satisfactory 
if  properly  prepared.  Some  such  solution  of  the  requisite  strength  should 
be  substituted  for  plain  water  in  the  cooling  system  upon  the  first  approach 
of  freezing  weather. 


Non=Freezing  Cooling  Fluids. 

In  discussing  the  merits  of  the  various  non-freezing  solutions  for  use 
in  connection  with  water  cooled  cars,  the  broad  statement  may  be  made 
that  there  is  no  anti-freezing  liquid  which  can  be  proved  to  be  the  best 
for  all  conditions,  because,  first,  widely  different  minimum  temperatures 
must  be  contended  with  in  different  parts  of  the  country;  second,  all 
cooling  systems  are  designed  to  use  pure  water,  and  some  are  not  capable 
of  doing  their  work  when  a  cooling  medium  of  much  greater  viscosity  is 
used;  and,  third,  the  available  cooling  media  differ  greatly  in  price  and 
in  volatility,  and  economic  reasons,  therefore,  also  intervene.  Following 
is  a  list  of  the  non-freezing  cooling  liquids  which  have  been  used  to  date 
for  this  purpose: 

1.  A  solution  of  glycerine. 

2.  A  solution  of  calcium  chloride. 

3.  A  solution  of  wood  alcohol  or  denatured  alcohol. 

4.  A  solution  of  alcohol  and  glycerine. 

5.  A  solution  of  glycerine  and  potassium  carbonate. 

6.  A  solution  of  common  salt. 

7.  A  light  mineral  oil. 

Of  the  above,  the  first  is  now  very  little  used  and  may  be  disposed 
of  in  a  few  words.  Glycerine  is  expensive  and  becomes  foul  in  the 
course  of  time,  and  must  then  be  removed.  It  is  held  that  it  attacks  rubber 
hose,  though,  with  the  short  lengths  of  this  article  found  on  the  average 
car,  it  could  not  possibly  do  very  much  damage.  It  was  the  one  non- 
freezing  liquid  recommended  by  foreign  writers  up  to  a  short  time  ago, 
but  abroad  automobiles  are  not  used  during  the  winter  season  to  the 
same  extent  as  in  the  United  States,  and  in  most  sections  of  Europe  the 
winter  is  not  nearly  so  severe  as  here. 

Calcium  chloride  has  been  and  is  yet  widely  and  successfully  used.  It 
is  comparatively  cheap,  and  if  the  solution  is  made  of  sufficient  strength, 
it  does  not  freeze  at  any  temperature  which  we  are  likely  to  have  in 
this  latitude.  Like  every  salt  solution  it  has  a  higher  boiling  point  than 
water,  and  evaporation  is  therefore  minimized.  Whatever  evaporates 
is  nothing  but  water,  and  any  loss  from  evaporation  can  be  restored  by 
adding  water.  The  solution  really  requires  that  it  be  tested  for  strength 
with  a  hydrometer  once  in  a  while,  because  if  it  is  allowed  to  become 
too  strong  from  excessive  evaporation,  some  of  the  calcium  chloride 
will  precipitate  and  may  prevent  circulation,  while,  if  it  is  allowed  to  be- 
come too  weak,  as,  for  instance,  through  loss  by  leakage  and  replenishment 

286 


with  water,  there  is  danger  that  the  solution  will  freeze  in  extremely 
cold  weather.  Among  the  objections  that  have  been  raised  to  the  use 
of.  calcium  chloride  solutions  is  that  it  attacks  the  metals  of  the  cooling 
system.  Very  contradictory  statements  have  been  made  in  this  respect, 
but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  when  the  solution  is  properly  prepared 


JO 

li 

!• 

M 

X 

.5, 

> 

^ 

X 

X^ 

\ 

- 

N 

X 

X 

, 

\ 

X 

i 

s 

x 

X 

t 

•> 

x 

r* 

-6p 
-TO 

x, 

X 

\ 

s 

x 

0                  S                  10                 46                 SO                JU 

1 

20          iO         00           SO          60          7 

**                         FREEZING  POINTS  OF  SALT  SOLUTION. 

Percentage  of  Alcohol. 


30 

ONS. 

30 

==c 

== 

= 

=^ 

^J—  . 

=t= 

=^= 

=^j 

=L= 

. 

•^-> 

^^ 

X 

to 

0 
-10 

^V- 

s^ 

\ 

1 

\ 

x 

X, 

|. 

y^ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

! 

s 

s 

K 

\ 

FR 
1 

1 

EEZIN 

00  

1 

J 

c  TE 

r1 

HPEV 

a 

^= 

1 

TUREI 
^ 

| 

i   OF 

1 

1 

CALO 

.0*0 

^=] 

i 

-an.  ( 

I  a 

pi^ 

2 

,RLd 

M  

0 
XM.  £ 

H 

iS 

OLUTK 

^^ 

FR 

^ 

EEZING 

TEMPERATURES  OF  WOOD  ALCOHOL   SOLUTI 

1  —  ; 

20 
10 

^ 

\ 

s>^- 

^^ 

N 

\ 

"^v 

V 

j" 

s 

X 

x 

\ 

X 

I 

\ 

t   \ 

s 

\ 

ft 
-10 

-is 

\ 

\ 

\ 

«„.». 

^S  10  is  20  as  jot,     ~"o  10  20  30  4«  50% 

HALF  AND  HALF.     WOOD  ALCOHOL-GLYCERINE  MIXTURE  Percentage  of  Glycerine. 

SOLUTION  IN  WATER.  FREEZING  POINTS  or  GLYCERINE  AKD  WATER. 

FIG.  171. 


and  any  acidity  is  taken  out  by  a  neutralizing  solution  of  milk  of  lime, 
the  dissolving  action  on  the  metals  is  negligible.  The  freezing  tempera- 
tures of  calcium  chloride  are  given  in  the  accompanying  curve.  In  the 
latitude  of  New  York  a  solution  of  1.22  specific  gravity,  which  has  a 
freezing  point  of  about  minus  15°  Fahr.,  meets  all  requirements.  This 
solution  is  best  prepared  by  first  making  a  saturated  solution  of  calcium 
chloride.  To  make  i  gallon  of  this  saturated  solution  requires  about 
a  half  gallon  of  water  and  8  pounds  of  commercial  calcium  chloride. 
The  solution  is  shown  to  be  saturated  when  a  few  crystals  of  the  calcium 
chloride  remain  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  undissolved.  This  saturated 
solution  is  then  diluted  with  an  equal  amount  of  water,  and  a  handful  of 
lime  is  added  to  render  it  slightly  alkaline.  If  you  want  to  be  sure 
of  having  added  enough  lime  you  can  get  some  red  litmus  papers  from 
a  drug  store  and  insert  one  of  them  in  the  solution,  and  if  it  turns  blue 
it  is  proof  that  the  solution  is  alkaline.  Such  a  solution  boils  only  at 
220°  to  225°  Fahr.,  and  it  is^  therefore,  not  likely  to  evaporate  rapidly. 
In  the  case  of  cars  which  are  much  used  it  is  advisable  to  test  the  strength 
of  the  solution  once  in  a  while  with  a  hydrometer,  ,and  to  add  water 
if  the  density  is  found  too  high,  or  saturated  solution  if  it  is  found  too  low. 

A  solution  of  wood  alcohol  has  been  much  used  in  recent  years.  Such 
a  solution  when  made  of  the  proper  strength  will  withstand  any  tempera- 
ture to  which  a  car  is  likely  to  be  exposed,  and  the  only  disadvantage 
of  the  alcohol  solution  is  that  it  boils  at  a  low  temperature,  and,  there- 
fore, evaporates  rather  rapidly.  Furthermore  the  alcohol  boils  away 
somewhat  faster  than  the  water,  instead  of  only  the  cheaply  re- 
placeable water  being  lost,  as  in  the  case  of  the  calcium  chloride 
solution.  Denatured  alcohol  having  essentially  the  same  properties  as 
wood  alcohol,  and  being  cheaper  than  the  latter,  is  now  generally 
used  in  preference.  One  advantage  of  the  denatured  over  the  wood 
alcohol  is  that  it  does  not  boil  at  so  low  a  temperature  and  its  loss  by 
evaporation  is  therefore  smaller.  For  instance,  a  30  per  cent,  solution 
of  wood  alcohol  boils  at  168°  Fahr.,  while  a  30  per  cent,  solution  of 
denatured  alcohol  boils  only  at  184°  Fahr.  For  40  per  cent,  solutions  the 
corresponding  boiling  temperatures  are  150°  and  182°.  There  is,  there- 
fore, quite  an  advantage  in  favor  of  denatured  alcohol  from  this  viewpoint. 

There  has  recently  been  a  considerable  decline  in  the  price  of  wood 
alcohol,  and  at  present  it  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  dena- 
tured alcohol,  so  that  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  there  is  any  advan- 
tage in  the  use  of  denatured  alcohol  over  wood  alcohol  for  a  non-freezing 
fluid.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  curves  herewith  that  for  the  same  freezing 
point  the  denatured  alcohol  solution  must  be  of  considerably  greater 
strength  than  the  wood  alcohol.  Of  course  the  boiling  point  of  the 
denatured  alcohol  solution  of  given  strength  is  considerably  less  than  that 
of  a  wood  alcohol  solution  of  the  same  strength,  which  compensates  for 
the  difference  in  freezing  points.  In  making  use  of  the  accompanying 
curve  showing  the  freezing  temperature  of  denatured  alcohol  solutions  of 
different  strengths,  the  percentages  refer  to  the  proportion  of  absolute 
alcohol  in  water,  and  if  the  ordinary  90  per  cent,  alcohol  is  used  for 
making  the  solution,  about  12  per  cent,  more  alcohol  by  volume  must  be 
used,  to  -allow  for  the  10  per  cent,  water  in  the  alcohol. 


The  alcohol  solution  is  not  very  suitable  for  cars  which  are  subject 
to  hard  usage  and  which  have  a  rather  inadequate  cooling  system,  in  which 
the  water  is  kept  constantly  at  or  near  the  boiling  point.  It  will  be  seen 
from  the  curve  that  a  30  per  cent,  solution  of  wood  alcohol  has  a  freezing 
temperature  of  minus  9°  and  would  serve  practically  all  requirements, 
except  during  a  spell  of  extreme  cold.  To  overcome  this  defect  of  rapid 
loss  of  the  alcohol  by  evaporation  the  glycerine-alcohol  solution  has  been 
devised.  Alcohol  and  glycerine  are  generally  mixed  in  equal  quantities, 
and  a  solution  of  this  mixture  of  given  strength  has  about  the  same  freez- 
ing point  as  an  alcohol  solution  of  the  same  percentage.  Now,  the 
glycerine  does  not  depress  the  boiling  point  of  water,  and  as  there  is 
only  half  the  amount  of  alcohol  present  the  boiling  point  is  much  higher 
than  for  an  alcohol  solution  of  the  same  freezing  point.  A  number  of 
manufacturers  recommend  a  solution  of  30  per  cent,  half  alcohol  and  half 
glycerine,  which  has  a  freezing  point  of  minus  5°  Fahr.  It  has  been 
found  that  there  is  no  loss  of  glycerine  from  such  a  solution  by  evapora- 
tion, and  only  alcohol  needs  to  be  added  from  time  to  time.  The  addition 
of  more  alcohol  is  also  fecommended  in  case  lower  temperatures  must 
be  guarded  against  than  the  solution  as  originally  prepared  will  stand. 

The  solution  of  glycerine  and  potassium  carbonate  was  recommended 
as  a  substitute  for  the  calcium  chloride  solution,  on  account  of  its  lesser 
corrosive  effect,  and  has  been  used  with  satisfaction  by  a  number  of 
motorists.  The  potassium  carbonate  is  used  on  account  of  its  anti-rust 
properties,  but  a  simple  solution  of  this  salt,  even  near  the  point  of 
saturation,  has  not  a  low  enough  freezing  point  to  "meet  the  requirements 
of  automobile  work.  It  is  with  the  object  of  further  reducing  the  freez- 
ing point  that  the  glycerine  is  added.  A  solution  of  75  parts,  by  weight, 
of  carbonate  of  potassium,  in  100  parts,  by  weight,  of  water,  to  which 
50  parts,  by  weight,  of  glycerine  had  been  added,  was  found  to  remain 
perfectly  liquid  at  minus  22°  Fahr. 

Common  salt  solutions  have  also  been  used  with  satisfactory  results 
by  a  number  of  motorists,  and  are  recommended  by  some  manufacturers. 
It  is  well  known  that  brine  has  a  corrosive  effect  on  iron  and  steel,  but 
this  can  be  almost  entirely  neutralized  by  adding  a  little  sal  soda  or 
sodium  carbonate  to  the  solution  to  render  it  alkaline.  The  defect  of 
the  salt  solution  is  that  it  does  not  withstand  low  enough  temperatures 
to  be  serviceable  for  all  winter  use  in  every  part  of  the  country.  It  will 
be  seen  from  the  accompanying  curve  that  a  solution  of  20  per  cent.,  by 
weight,  will  stand  temperatures  down  to  about  8°  Fahr.  Where  no  lower 
temperature  than  this  needs  to  be  provided  against,  this  is  undoubtedly 
the  cheapest  of  all  non-freezing  solutions.  Where  a  lower  freezing  point 
is  required  it  seems  that  the  addition  of  glycerine  to  such  a  solution 
might  serve  the  desired  end. 

Light  mineral  oil  has  been  used  as  a  cooling  fluid  for  winter  use  by 
a  number  of  motorists,  but  the  opinions  regarding  its  suitability  for  the 
purpose  have  been  widely  divergent.  It  can  only  be  recommended  for  cars 
having  a  pump  which  circulates  the  cooling  fluid  energetically.  For 
thermo-siphon  cooling  systems  its  use  would  be  out  of  the  question,  as 
the  engine  would  overheat  when  working  for  any  length  of  time  under 
full  load,  and  would  probably  pound.  Oil  has  a  much  lower  specific  heat 

U}i"  289 


than  water;  that  is,  much  less  heat  is  required  to  raise  a  certain  volume 
of  oil  through  a  certain  temperature  range  than  the  same  volume  of  water. 
The  fire  danger  involved  has  also  been  referred  to,  but  is  negligible  if 
proper  caution  is  exercised.  Oil  might  be  recommended  where  extremely 
low  temperatures  have  to  be  guarded  against  and  where  energetic  circu- 
lation is  assured  by  the  construction  of  the  car. 

No  scientific  accuracy  is  claimed  for  the  curves  shown  herewith,  but 
they  are  sufficiently  accurate  to  serve  all  practical  purposes.  The  specific 
gravities  indicated  in  the  diagrams  are  for  60°  Fahr.  For  the  testing  of 
the  freezing  points  of  denatured  alcohol  solutions  a  special  hydrometer 
is  made,  which,  when  floated  in  a  sample  of  the  mixture  drawn  from 
the  radiator,  indicates  directly  the  temperature  at  which  the  solution 
under  test  will  freeze. 


Traction  in  Snow  and  Mud. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  slipping  of  the  smooth  surfaces  of  pneumatic 
tires  under  these  unfavorable  conditions  and  either  a  failure  to  move 
the  car  or  the  development  of  a  tendency  toward  side  slip,  such  tires 

are  provided  with  surface  pro- 
jections of  various  kinds,  which 
tend  to  enable  the  wheel  to  secure 
a  foothold.  These  projections 
may  either  be  formed  upon  the 
tread  of  the  tire  itself  or  may  be 
applied  in  a  separable  form.  To 
the  former  class  belong  the  spe- 
cial treads  with  molded  rubber 
knobs,  such  as  the  Morgan  & 
Wright  tread  (Fig.  172)  and  the 
treads  containing  embedded  wires, 
such  as  the  Midgley  (Fig.  174). 
These  treads  are  intended  more 
for  ordinary  use  and  the  pre- 
vention of  skidding  than  for  over- 
coming extreme  conditions  of  dif- 
ficult traction. 

In  the  second  class  belong  the 
steel  rivet  studded  applied  bands, 
which  may  either  be  readily  re- 
movable from  the  tire  tread,  as  is 
the  Woodworth  (Fig.  173),  or 
FIG.  172.  made  as  an  integral  part  of  the 

tread,  as  the  Michelin  (Fig.  175). 

To  meet  extreme  conditions  of  ice,  snow  and  mud,  the  tire  chain  is 
generally  employed  and  is  found  in  various  forms.  Figs.  176  and  177  show 
such  chains  applied  to  wheels.  They  are  readily  removable  and  occupy 
but  little  space  when  carried  in  the  car.  The  traction  chains  are  hardened 
and  wear  very  well  and  are,  moreover,  very  readily  and  cheaply  replaceable 


290 


when  worn   out.     Fig.    176   shows   the  tractive  portion   in   the   form   of 
ordinary  sections   of  chain  disposed  in  a   zig-zag  manner,  while  in   Fig. 


FIG.  173. — THE  WOODWORTH  TREAD. 

177  the  tractive  portion  is  composed  of  flat  links  which  are  claimed  to  be 
easier  on  the  rubber  of  the  tire  tread  and  to  hold  more  effectively. 

Of  the  various  means  of  securing  traction  in  mud  or  snow  which 
may  be  extemporized,  or  made  at  short  notice,  probably  the  best  is  to 
take  short  lengths  of  old  hose  pipe,  preferably  steam  or  heavy  pneumatic 
hose,  cut  to  just  go  around  tire  and  rim.  Through  these  rope  of  a 


FIG.  174. 

diameter  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  less  than  that  of  the  inside  of  the 
hose  is  passed,  and  these  are  tied  over  the  tire  and  to  the  spokes  (see  Fig. 

291 


178).  These  secure  a  very  good  grip  for  the  wheel  and 
at  the  same  time  are  elastic  enough  so  that  they  can  do 
no  harm  to  the  tire. 

Another  good  idea  is  to  take  an  old  outer  cover  and 
cut  it  into  sections  about  6  to  8  inches  long.  Leather 
straps  are  riveted  or  sewed  to  the  ends  of  these,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  179.  Several  of  these  sections  may  be 
put  over  the  shoe,  and  strapped  firmly  to  rim  and  spokes. 
In  use,  the  drag  of  the  road  on  the  tire  bends  the  sec- 
tion backward  against  the  shoe,  and  the  snow,  packing 
up  against  it,  also  helps  in  the  gripping  effect. 

Probably  the   commonest  and   simplest   way,   particu- 
larly in  case  of  an  emergency,  is  to  wrap  the  wheel  with 
heavy    rope.     This    is   very   effective,    especially   in   deep 
snow,    does   not   injure   the   tires,   and   if  carefully   used 
is   not  particularly  dangerous.     But   it  must  be  watched 
very  closely,  otherwise  the  rope,  which  wears  quite  rapidly, 
FIG    175          w''l   break   and   become   entangled   in    some   part   of   the 
MICHELIN         mechanism  of  the  car.    Hence,  in  using  rope,  it  must  be 
ANTI-SKID         discarded    when    it   begins    to    show    considerable    wear. 
TIRE  I*  should  be  applied  as  shown  in.  Fig.  180,  using  not  more 

than  five  turns,  and  putting  the  ends  on  the  outside  of 
the  wheel.  The  same  rope  may  be  used  for  several  successive  days  by 
repeatedly  shifting  it  to  distribute  the  wear. 

In  regard  to  the  use  of  such  gripping  devices,  it  may  be  said  in  general 
that  since  they  always  detract  somewhat  from  the  smooth 
running  and  speed  of  the  machine,  and  since  a  car  may 
often  be  driven  for  days  at  a  time  without  any  great  in- 
convenience from  slipping,  it  is  just  about  as  well  to  run 
without  anything  of  the  sort  except  when  it  is  actually 
needed.  A  car  should  always  be  provided  with  some  sort 
of  "creepers,"  however,  to  be  put  on  in  case  of  an  un- 
looked  for  stall. 

Very  often  a  single  grip  on  one  wheel  is  sufficient  to  get 
the  car  started,  for  by  reversing  till  the  grip  is  next  the 
ground  on  the  back  side,  and  then  driving  forward,  the 
wheel  acquires  considerable  velocity  in  slipping  almost  an 
entire  revolution,  and  consequently  the  grip  strikes  the 
road  surface  with  an  energetic  kick  which  seldom  fails  to 
start  the  car.  Sometimes,  in  case  of  a  stoppage  where 
rope  is  not  at  hand,  the  car  may  be  rescued  by  winding 
a  leather  strap  about  the  tire,  or  even  by  using  several 
turns  of  insulated  wire  such  as  is  often  carried  in  the 
tool  box. 


FIG.   176. — 
ZIG-ZAG  CHAIN. 


292 


How  to   Avoid  Skidding. 

(H.  H.  BROWN.) 

The  general  rule  in  case  of  a  skid  is  to  steer  slightly  in  the  opposite 
direction  from  which   the  skid  tends  to  head  the  car.     As  to  the  use  of 


177.— Fox   CROSS   CHAINS  AND   SIDE  CHAINS. 

brakes,  the  general  rule  is  to  use  them  sparingly,  if  at  all,  where  skidding 
occurs  or  is  likely  to  occur,  but  rather  to  allow  plenty  of  time  and  let 
the  car  speed  die  down  gradually  and  to  use  a  brake  which  acts  on  the 
rear  wheels  direct  and  not  on  the  differ- 
ential or  propeller  shaft.  Supposing  a 
case  where  the  rear  skids  toward  the 
right  curb,  the  machine  will  be  headed 
toward  the  left.  Therefore,  following 
the  rule,  the  wheel  should  be  turned 
to  the  right.  The  only  exception  to 
this  would  be  in  the  case  of  a  tendency 
for  the  car  to  move  bodily  to  the  right 
owing  to  excessive  crowning  of  the  road. 
In  this  latter  case  it  might  possibly  be 
advisable  to  steer  to  the  left  to  regain 
the  crown,  although  even  in  this  -instance 
the  skid  will  probably  have  altered  the 
direction  sufficiently  for  this  purpose. 
As  to  the  use  of  the  brake,  it  is  questionable  whether  in  this  instance 


FIG,  178.— USE  OF  RUBBER 
HOSE  AS  TIRE  GRIPS. 


FIG.  179.— SECTIONS  OF  OLD  TIRE 
COVERS  AS  TIRE  GRIPS. 


FIG.  1 80.— USE  OF  ROPE  TO 
SECURE  TRACTION. 


293 


it  is  wise  to  even  throw  out  the  clutch  or  slacken  the  speed  of  the  motor, 
for  it  is  necessary  to  get  the  machine  moving  in  the  direction  of  its  length 
before  it  can  be  steered  to  the  right  to  be  straightened  out.  As  soon  as 
the  car  is  moving  in  the  direction  of  its  length  and  properly  answering 
the  wheel,  then,  of  course,  the  clutch  may  be  thrown  out  and  the  brake 
applied  with  judgment,  if  necessary.  The  three  rules  to  be  observed  on 
slippery  streets  are:  Steer  small,  use  brakes  sparingly,  if  at  all,  and 
either  keep  far  enough  away  from  the  curb,  so  that  in  case  of  a  skid 
the  machine  will  not  strike  it,  or  keep  as  close  as  possible,  so  that  in 
case  it  does  strike  the  momentum  of  the  car  toward  the  curb  will  be 
small  and  the  blow  glancing. 


294 


USEFUL  CHARTS  AND  TABLES. 


Vehicle  Speed  Charts. 

The  following  chart  or  diagram  permits  of  instantly  determining 
the  vehicle  speed  in  miles  per  hour  when  the  engine  speed  in  revolutions 
per  minute,  the  ratio  of  reduction  from  the  engine  to  the  road  wheels, 
and  the  wheel  diameter  are  known.  The  use  of  the  chart  may  be  illus- 
trated by  an  example.  Suppose  it  is  required  to  find  the  speed  a  car  will 
run  at  when  the  engine  turns  at  900  r.  p.  m.,  the  gear  reduction  is  3  and 


FIG.  181. — GEAR  RATIO  AND  VEHICLE  SPEED  CHART. 
295 


the   road  wheels   are   30  inches   in   diameter.     The   ordinary   method   of 
calculation  is  as  follows:  The  circumference  is  30X3.1416  =  94.248  inches, 


The  speed  of  revolution  of  the  road  wheels  is  95?  =300  r.  p.  m. 

The  distance  covered  by  the  road  wheels  in  one  minute  is  therefore 
300X7.854  =  2,356.2  feet,  and  in  one  hour  60X2,356.2=141,372  feet,  which 

is  equal  to   IiI>^I^  ^26^  miles  (approx.). 
5,280 

By  means  of  the  chart  this  result  may  be  arrived  at  by  locating  the 
point  on  the  lower  horizontal  scale  denoting  the  engine  revolutions,  then 
passing  vertically  upward  until  intersecting  the  inclined  line  representing 
the  gear  ratio,  then  horizontally  to  the  right  (or  the  left,  as  the  case  may 
be),  until  intersecting  the  inclined  line  representing  the  wheel  diameter, 
then  vertically  upward  to  the  upper  horizontal  scale,  where  the  miles 
per  hour  at  which  the  vehicle  will  run  under  these  conditions  may  be  read 
off.  The  method  of  use  is  indicated  by  the  sketch  in  the  lower  right 
hand  corner  of  the  chart. 


A  Gear  Ratio  Table. 

(F.  E.  WATTS.) 

Accompanying  is  a  table  which  has  proven  very  useful  in  transmission 
calculations.  The  method  of  using  is  almost  self  evident,  still  a  few  words 
of  explanation  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

The  values  in  columns  5,  6,  7,  8  and  9  make  no  allowance  for  tire  slip 
or  compression;  doubtless  some  of  the  speedometer  makers  could  supply 
data  on  these  points  if  they  were  needed  for  exact  calculations. 

In  order  to  secure  the  gear  ratio  required  between  the  engine  and  rear 
wheels  under  any  given  conditions,  the  usual  method  of  procedure  is  to 
assume  a  normal  piston  speed  in  feet  per  minute,  obtain  from  this  the 
number  of  revolutions  per  minute  of  the  engine,  and  select  from  the  table 
the  value  for  the  particular  wheel  diameter  and  the  desired  car  speed. 
The  ratio  of  this  value  to  the  engine  revolutions  will  be  the  gearing  ratio 
to  be  divided  among  chain,  gears,  etc.  For  instance :  Assume  28  inch 
wheels,  5  miles  per  hour  on  first  speed,  and  800  revolutions  per  minute 
with  5  inch  stroke,  the  piston  speed  being  666  feet  per  minute.  Value 
from  table  (column  5)  is  60.025.  Gear  ratio  is  800-^-60.025  =  13.3;  or 
the  engine  revolves  13.3  times  for  each  revolution  of  the  wheels  on  first 
speed. 

Column  10  gives  the  tangential  pull  in  pounds  at  the  tires  due  to  I 
horse  power,  the  full  wheel  diameter  being  assumed  and  no  compression 
on  tires  considered;  from  these  figures  can  be  obtained  the  pull  acting 
on  the  chain  or  bevel  gears  by  multiplying  by  the  wheel  diameter  and 
dividing  by  the  pitch  diameter  of  the  sprocket  or  gear. 

256 


30MI>COO( 


SSSSSSSSS 


ioeo«  10         inJ- 


•Is 


s 

So" 


•    w  *u  g 

iBiilsisSssi  g«s 


o     _v      o 

i  :§  i 


?ki  a 

-I  s.  I 


297 


Column  ii  gives  the  energy  in  foot  pounds  which  I  pound  will  possess 
due  to  motion  at  the  given  speeds;  these  values  would  be  decreased  by 
friction  and  by  air  resistance.  Multiplying  them  by  the  weight  of  the 
car  in  pounds  will  give  a  measure  of  the  energy  which  must  be  absorbed 
by  the  brakes  or  in  order  to-  stop  the  car.  Dividing  this  last  quantity 
by  778  will  give  the  heat  in  British  thermal  units  which  the  brakes  must 
get  rid  of,  and  show  why  so  many  brakes  "burn  up."  For  example:  At 
20  m.  p.  h.  to  stop  a  car  weighing  2,500  pounds  loaded  would  require 
2,500X13.36  =  33,400  foot  pounds,  and  33,400-^-779  =  43  British  thermal  units 
must  be  absorbed  by  the  brakes,  bearings  and  wind  resistance. 

The  values  in  column  4  are  exact,  and  the  others  are  near  enough 
for  most  practical  work.  The  values  for  i  mile  per  hour  form  a  compact 
table  for  a  pocket  notebook,  since  from  them  any  value  in  the  table  may 
easily  be  found. 


The  Measurement  of  Grades. 

There  is  considerable  misunderstanding  current  as  to  the  method  of 
measuring  road  grades  and  a  general  tendency  to  overestimate  the  incline 
of  hills.  The  matter,  however,  is  a  very  simple  one. 

Grades  are  usually  measured  on  a  percentage  basis,  and  this  percentage 
is  the  ratio  of  the  vertical  distance  climbed  to  the  length  of  the  horizontal 
distance  traveled.  A  horizontal  base  line  is  assumed  originating  at  the 
commencement  of  the  incline,  and  all  grades  are  referred  to  this.  If  a 
perpendicular  is  erected  to  this  horizontal  line,  the  distance  along  it  from 
its  base  to  the  point  where  it  intersects  the  grade  itself  is  the  rise.  The 
ratio  of  this  vertical  rise  to  the  length  of  the  base  line  from  its  beginning 
to  the  foot  of  the  perpendicular  is  the  measure  of  the  grade.  Of  course, 
the  ratio  of  the  difference  in  height  between  two  neighboring  perpendicu- 
lars, to  the  horizontal  distance  between  them,  is  the  measure  of  the  grade. 
Tf  two  perpendiculars  be  chosen  100  feet  apart  and  one  of  them  be  20  feet 
and  the  other  30  feet  in  height,  the  rise  in  the  100  feet  of  horizontal 
distance  is  10  feet  and  the  grade  is  one  of  10-100  or  10  per  cent. 


Horse  Power  Formulae. 

The  following  considerations  enable  one  to  form  some  idea  of  the 
maximum  horse  power  which  may  be  expected  to  be  obtainable  from  any 
four  cycle  gasoline  vehicle  engine. 

Let  n  be  the  number  of  cylinders  (working  on  the  Otto  or  four  cycle 
principle)  ;  d,  the  piston  diameter  in  inches ;  /,  the  length  of  piston  stroke  in 
inches;  N,  the  number  of  crank  revolutions  per  minute;  P,  the  mean 
effective  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  in-  the  cylinder  during  the 
power  stroke,  and  e  the  efficiency  factor.  Then  the  horse  power  developed 
will  be: 

•7854  ^  ^2  v 


2.X  12  X  33,000 

The  values  of   P  and  e  are  not  known  without  experiment.     P,  the 
mean  effective  pressure  during  the  explosion  stroke,  varies  with  the  com- 


pression  used,  but  70  pounds  per  square  inch  is  a  conservative  figure. 
The  value  of  e,  the  mechanical  efficiency,  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the 
workmanship  on  the  engine  and  should  be  about  .75.  Substituting  these 
two  values  in  the  above  equation  and  reducing  we  have 


rl. 


d'X/X  N  X  M 

r.   —  —  - 


19,200 

This  formula,  of  course,  applies  only  when  the  motor  is  running  at 
about  its  most  advantageous  speed.  Usually  this  speed  is  such  that 
/xN  =  about  4,800  (that  is,  800  revolutions  per  minute  for  a  motor  of  6 
inches  stroke,  or  1,200  revolutions  per  minute  for  a  motor  of  4  inches 
stroke).  The  formula  then  reduces  to 


H.  P.  =s!l_S' 

4 

As  some  manufacturers  use  as  high  as  80  or  90  pounds  compression  and 
others  only  50  to  60,  it  is  evident  that  there  must  be  quite  wide  variations 
in  the  power  obtained  by  the  different  makers. 


500  600  700  800 

FIG.  182. — ENGINE  HORSE  POWER 
CHART. 

Piston  Speed  in  Feet  Per  Minute. 
To  determine  the  horse  power  per  cylin- 
der of  a  gasoline  engine,  locate  the  point  on 
the  left-hand  scale  corresponding  to  the 
stroke;  proceed  to  the  right  until  inter- 
secting speed  line;  proceed  up  or  down 
until  intersecting  the  "bore"  line;  then  con- 
tinue to  the  right  and  read  off  the  horse 
power  on  the  vertical  scale  at  the  right. 

299 


In  order  to  estimate  the  horse  power  of  a  motor,  the  diameter  of  a 
piston  in  inches  should  be  squared  and  the  product  multiplied  by  the 
number  of  cylinders.  This  result,  when  divided  by  4,  gives  an  estimate  of 
the  horse  power  of  any  four  cycle  gasoline  motor  when  running  with  a 
piston  speed  of  800  feet  per  minute  and  a  mean  effective  pressure  of  70 
pounds  per  square  inch.  The  accompanying  diagram,  Fig.  182,  is  calcu- 
lated on  the  basis  of  a  mean  pressure  of  70  pounds  per  square  inch. 


A.   L.   A.   M.   Formula. 

This  formula  was  adopted  by  the  mechanical  branch  of  the  Association 
of  Licensed  Automobile  Manufacturers,  and  is  believed  to  represent  very 
closely  the  output  of  a  good  average  engine  at  a  piston  speed  of  1,000  feet 
per  minute.  By  running  at  a  considerably  higher  piston  speed  it  is  'possi- 
ble to  get  more  power  from  an  engine  of  given  cylinder  dimensions,  but  the 
high  speed  is  a  disadvantage  in  itself.  The  formula  is  as  follows :  Horse 
power  per  cylinder  =  bore  in  inches  squared,  divided  by  2^.  Thus  a  cylinder 
of  5  inch  bore  will  develop  5x5  +  2*4  =  10  horse  power.  Assuming  a 
four  cylinder  motor,  its  total  output  should  thus  be  40  pounds.  The 
length  of  stroke  does  not  enter  as  long  as  the  piston  speed  remains  the  same. 
Piston  speed  in  feet  per  minute  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  length 
of  the  stroke  in  inches  by  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  made  by 
the  motor  and  dividing  the  product  by  6.  Thus  an  engine  having  a  5 
inch  stroke  running  at  1,200  revolutions  per  minute.possesses  a  piston  speed 
of  5  x  1,200  H-  6  =  1,000  feet  per  minute. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  A.  L.  A.  M.  rating  gives  very  much 
higher  results  than  does  the  formula  just  developed  above.  This  is  partly 
on  account  of  the  higher  piston  speed  assumed  in  the  former  formula,  and 
partly  due  to  other  assumptions  upon  the  part  of  its  framers.  The  A.  L. 
A.  M.  formula,  while  conventional  in  its  nature,  rather  than  rational  or 
directly  empirical,  possesses  the  advantages  of  simplicity  and  of  having 
been  very  widely  adopted. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  no  formula  as  yet  developed  which  is 
capable  of  accurately  evaluating  the  horse  power  of  any  individual  motor 
taken  at  random. 


300 


INDEX 


A 

*    *  Bearing  Cap,  Repairing  a  Broken 243 

PAGE        Bearing     Oils 125 

Accumulator,    The 34        Blocking   Up  a  Car 134 

Accumulators,   Care  of 43,  190        Body  Hoist,   How  to  Make  a 221 

Accumulators,    Derangements   of 40        Brake  Drum,  Truing  Up  a 276 

Accumulators,    Ignition 45  Brake  Failure,  What  to  Do  in  Case  of. 

Accumulators,  Laying  Up  of 181  200,  204 

Adapters  for  Double  Ignition  Systems.   261        Brakes,   Adjustment  of 186 

Adjusting  the  Carburetor 108        Brakes,  Care  of  Electric  Vehicle 207 

Adjusting  Valves 255        Brakes,  Dragging 134 

Air  Leaks  and  Their  Effects 271        Brakes,    Inspection    of 165 

Air   Leaks,   Symptoms  of 273        Brakes,  Intelligent  Use  of 200 

Air  Valve,    Floating   Ball . 101        Brakes,  Testing  the 195,  200 

A.    L.   A.   M.   Rating 300        Brakes,   Effect  on  Tires 140 

Alcohol  Anti-Freeze  Solutions 288        Brasses,   Fitting 239 

Alternating   Current    Magnetos 60        Brass  Parts,  Dull  Finish  for 283 

Ammeter,   The 65        Bright  Parts,  Treatment  of 182 

Ammeter,   Use  of   Electric   Vehicle....   208       Bushings,   Refitting 264 

Ampere,  The 6 

Anti-Freeze    Solutions 285,  286  ^^ 

Anti-Skid   Devices  for  Tires 290  ^^ 

Asbestos  Fabric,  Use  of 275  Calcium  Chloride  Anti-Freeze  Solution.  280 

Assembling  a  Motor 264        Capacity,    Electrical 4 

Atwater  Kent  SparR  Generator 62        Carbon   Deposits,   Removal  of 274 

Automatic  Air  Valve,  The 99  Carbonization,   Loss  of   Power  from...   171 

Automatic     Carburetors 98        Carbonization,    Preventing 274 

Axle,   Straightening  a  Bent 280       Carbonization  of  Oils 120,  125 

Axle    Bearings,    Inspection   of 184        Carburation    91 

Axles,   Adjustment   of 185        Carburation  Difficulties  in  Winter 284 

Axles,    Inspection    of 166       Carburetor,  The 97 

Carburetor,  Action  of  the 99 

Carburetor,  The  Automatic 98 

Carburetors,   Derangements  of 105,  173 

Babbitt,    Expanding 242        Carburetor,   Freezing  of 108 

Babbitting    Shaft   Bearings 241  Carburetor,      The      Mechanically      Con- 
Backfiring,   Cause  of 113            trolled    102 

Ball    Bearings,    Lubricant    for 127        Carburetor,   The   Multiple   Jet 104 

Battery,  The  Storage 34       Carburetor,  The  Vaporizing  Tube 102 

Battery  Auxiliary  for  Magneto 74        Carburetors,  Artificial  Heating  of 101 

Battery   Ignition   Systems,    Special 62        Carburetor   Adjustment 108 

Battery  Ignition  Systems,  Locating  De-  Carburetor  Floats,   Defects  of 106,  111 

fects  in 80        Cars,  Hints  on  Washing 223 

Battery  Switches,   Defects  in 83        Caulking   257 

Batteries    7        Cell,    Electric 7 

Batteries,   Electric   Vehicle 208        Chains,   Cleaning  and   Lubricating 177 

Batteries,    Use   With   Magnetos 50        Chains,    Inspection    of 185 

Batteries,    Paralleling 81        Chains,    Lubrication    of 126 

Batteries,    Reserve 80        Chains,  Tire 290 

Batteries,   Testing   of 66        Chains  and   Sprockets,   Care   of 176 

Bearings,  Adjustment  and  Renewal  of.    237  Chains  and  Sprockets,   Repairing  Old..    179 

Bearings,    Adjustment  of   Engine 187        Chain    Tools 178 

Bearings,    Rebabbitting 241        Charging    Connections 48 

Bearings,    Seizing  of 119  Charging    Accumulators    from    Primary 

Bearings,    Testing   for    Play   in 262  Cells    48 

I 


INDEX— Continued. 


PAGE 

Charging    Storage   Cells 38 

Charging  Vehicle   Batteries,   When   Re- 
quired       209 

Cleaning   Tops,    Instructions    for 224 

Clincher    Tires,   Attaching  and   Detach- 
ing        136 

Clouding  of  Windshields,  Prevention  of  226 

Clutch,   How  to   Engage  the 198 

Clutches,  Adjustment  of 196 

Clutches,    Care   of 173,  192 

Clutches,  Gripping  of 174 

Clutches,   Multiple   Disc 176 

Clutches,   Slipping  of 175 

Clutches,    Spinning  of 175 

Clutch  Brake,  How  to  Make  a 277 

Clutch   Leathers,    Treatment   of 168 

Coasting,  Gear  Setting  for 134 

Coasting,   Instructions  for 204 

Coasting,   Saving  Fuel  by 204 

Coils,  Current  Consumption  of 68 

Cold   Chisels 236 

Cold  Test  of  Lubricants 124 

Cold  Weather,  Effects  on  Gasoline 112 

Common   Salt  Anti-Freeze  Solution 289 

Commutators,  Care  of  Electric  Vehicle.  206 
Compressed  Air  for  Drawing  Gasoline.  95 
Compression,  Its  Influence  on  Fuel 

Economy    115 

Compression,    Loss   of 265 

Compression,   Testing  the 186,  266 

Compression    Leaks,    Locating 267 

Condenser,    Electrical 5,     15 

Conductors    3 

Cone  Clutch,   Fitting  a  Leather  to  a..   275 

Cone    Clutches,   Care  of 173 

Connecting  Rod  Bearings,  Refitting. 238,  243 
Connections  of  Jump  Spark  Apparatus.  68 

Contact,   Time   of 27 

Contacts,     Defective 82 

Contact  Spark  System,  The 75 

Controllers,   Care  of  Electric  Vehicle..   207 

Cooling    System,    Cleaning   out 188 

Cooling  System,  Defects  in 171 

Cooling  System,  Draining  the 180 

Cooling  System,   Inspection   of 165 

Cracked   Water   Jackets,    Repairing 250 

Crane,   How  to  Make   a 222 

Crank    Pins,    Smoothing    Up 239 

Crank   Pin   Bearings,    Refitting 238 

Crank  Shaft,  Truing  Up  a 263 

Crating  of  Cars  for   Shipment 227 

Current,    Electric 4 

Current    Tap,    The 47 

Cut  Shafts,   Repairing 278 

Cylinder  Heads,   Leaks  in 271 

Cylinder  Oil,   Selection   of 123 

Cylinders,   Order  of  Firing 75 

Cylinders,   Reboring 263,  269 

Cylinders,   Replacing   Damaged 270 

Cylinders,    Scored 269 


PAGE 

Decarbonizer,  Use  of 275 

Defects   in    Ignition    Systems,    Location 

of    80 

Denatured    Alcohol    Anti-Freeze    Solu- 
tion    ...288 

Demountable   Rims 159 

Demountable  Rims,   Replacing  Tires  on  163 

Demountable  Rims,  Tools  for 162 

Demountable  Rims  in  Practice 161 

Depolarizers    8 

Derangements  of   Magnetos 57 

Differential  Case,   Inspection  of 184 

Direct  Current  Magnetos 59 

Disassembling  a  Motor 262 

Distance  Rods,  Overhauling 185 

Distance   Rods,  Adjustment  of 166 

Distributor,    The 28 

Distributor,    Magneto 53 

Distributor   System,    Connections  of...     69 

Double   Ignition    Systems 75 

Double  Ignition  Systems,  Adapters  for.   261 

Drifts   236 

Driving   Instructions 197 

Driving  Gears,  Adjustment  of 185 

Driving   Pinion,    Repairing  a   Broken..   279 

Dry   Cell,  The 29 

Dry  Cells,  Ammeter  Tests  of 66 

Dry  Cells,  Deterioration  of 68 

Dry  Cells,   Methods  of  Connecting 32 

Dry  Cells,  Purchasing 190 

Dry  Cells,  Short  Circuits  in 31 

Dual  System  of  Ignition,  The 56 

Dual    System   of   Ignition,    Connections 

for    74 

Dynamo  Ignition  Generators 61 

Dynamos,    Self    Regulating    Ignition...      62 
Dynamos,  Use  in  Vehicle  Lighting 62 


Electric   Current,    Chemical    Effects  of.  5 
Electric    Vehicles,    Care    and    Mainten- 
ance   of 205 

Electric    Vehicles,    Lubrication    of 206 

Electric     Vehicle     Batteries,     Charging 

and   Care  of 208 

Electric    Vulcanizers 154 

Electrical  Generators,  Chemical 7 

Electrical  Measuring  Instruments 65 

Electrical   Principles 3 

Electricity,    Properties    of 3 

Electro-chemical    Equivalent 6 

Electrolyte,    Spilling   of 210 

Electrolyte   for   Storage    Cells 36 

Electrolytes    5 

Electromagnetic    Induction 10 

Electromotive  Force 4 

Emergency   Tire  Sleeves 150 

Engine,  Assembling  an 264 


INDEX— Continued. 


PAGE 

Engine,  Inspection  of 166 

Engine,    Overhauling  an 262 

Engine,   Running  in  an 166 

Engine,   Significance  of  Stalling 195 

Engine,    Starting  the 197 

Engine  Bearings,  Adjustment  of 187 

Engine    Derangements 170 

Engine  Lubrication,  Inspection  of 166 

Engine   Lubrication,    Methods  of 128 

Engine  Speeds,  Car  Speeds  With  Vari- 
ous      295 


Fierce    Clutches 174 

Filtering  Gasoline 96 

Fires,   Extinguishing  Gasoline 93 

Fire   Precautions 226 

Firing  of  Cylinders,   Order  of 75 

Flash  Test  of  Oils 124 

Flywheel,  Removing  a. 244 

Flywheel,    Resetting   a    Loose 245 

Force  Feed  Lubricators 129 

Foreign  Shipment,  Crating  Cars  for...  231 

Frame,  Trussing  a  Weak 280 

Friction,    Excessive    Engine 135 

Friction,   How  to   Locate   Abnormal...  133 

Friction,   Rolling  and   Sliding 119 

Fuel    Economy   and    Its    Significance...  113 

Funnel  for  Gasoline 97 


Garages,   Heating  and  Ventilating 217 

Garages,  Plans  for  Private 213 

Garage    Contrivances 221 

Gasoline,   Composition  and  Properties  of  92 

Gasoline,    Density   of 92 

Gasoline,    Density    Scale 88 

Gasoline,  Effects  of  Cold  on 112 

Gasoline,    Explosive   Mixtures  of. 93 

Gasoline,    Filtering  of 96 

Gasoline,   Foreign   Matter  in 107 

Gasoline,  Precautions  in   Handling.  .94,  95 

Gasoline,    Safety  Cans  for 93 

Gasoline,   Source  of 91 

Gasoline,   Storage  and  Handling  of 93 

Gasoline,    Taking   on 197 

Gasoline,   Underground    Storage  of....  94 

Gasoline    Fires,    Extinguishing 93 

Gasoline  Funnel  and  Filter 97 

Gasoline   Leaks 105,  196 

Gasoline  System,   Draining  the 181 

Gasoline   System,    Flushing   Out 189 

Gasoline  System,  Inspection  of 168 

Gasoline    Separator 97 

Gasoline    Storage   and   Dispensing   Sys- 
tems      95 

Gasoline  Supply,  Automatic  Variation  of  103 

Gear  Box,  Care  of 191 

Gear   Box,   Lubricant   for 126 


Gear   Changing,   Instructions  for 

Gear   Ratio  Table 

Gear  Ratios,   Speeds  With  Various 

Gears,  When  to  Change 

Gear    Shifter,    Bushing   a 

Gear  Teeth,  Repairing  Broken 

Glycerine  Anti-Freeze  Solution 

Glycerine  and  Potassium  Carbonate  So- 
lution     

Governor   Driven  Magnetos 

Grades,   Measurement  of 

Gradometer,  Use  of 

Graphite,  Used  on  Inner  Tubes 

Graphite  as  a  Lubricant 

Grating  Sounds,  Significance  of 

Gravity    Feed    Oiling 

Grinding  Valves 186, 

Grease    

Grease  Cups,  Use  of 

Grounds   in   Wiring 


H 


Hammers    

Heat,   Electrical 

Heating   Garages 

Heating   of   Moving   Parts 

Heating    of   Tires 

Heat   Supply  for   Carburetors 

High   Speed,   Destructive   Effects  of... 

High  Tension   Ignition 

High  Tension  Magnetos 

High  Tension   Magneto   Connections... 

"Homo"   Fuel   Mixer 

Horn,  Intelligent  Use  of  the. '. 

Horse  Power   Chart 

Horse   Power   Formulae 

Horses,  How  to  Meet  Restive 

Hydrometer,    The 

Hydrometer,  Use  on  Vehicle  Batteries. 

Hydrometer    Scales 

Hydrometer   Syringe 

Hydrometer     Tables 


PAGE 
199 
296 
295 

199 
277 
279 


106 

152 
127 
194 
181 

255 

125 

127 

SI 


6 

217 

134 

145 

101 

203 

13 

53 

72 

101 

202 

299 


211 
87 


Igniters,  Care  of 167 

Igniters,  Contact  Spark 25 

Ignition 3 

Ignition   Accumulators,    Care   of 45 

Ignition    Accumulators,    Charging    of..  46 

Ignition  Connections 68 

Ignition,   Defects  in 170 

Ignition,  Double  Systems  of 75 

Ignition    Dynamos 61 

Ignition,  High  Tension 13 

Ignition,   Low  Tension 13,  75 

Ignition,   Synchronized 71 

Induced   Currents,   Curves  of 15 

Induction  Coil 12,  13 

Induction,    Electromagnetic 10 


IIT 


INDEX— Continued. 


Induction,   Mutual 12 

Induction,    Self 11 

nductor  Type   Magnetos.. 51 

nflation   Pressure  of  Tire  on 145,  146 

nlet  Manifolds,   Defective 274 

nner  Tubes,  Care  of  Spare 142 

nspection   of   Cars 164 

nspection  During  Stops 196 

nspection    Lamp 132 

nsulators    3 


Jump  Spark  System,  Simple 18 

Jump    Spark   System,    The 13 


K 


Kerosene,  Use  in   Cylinders ..181,  186 

Kerosene,  Its  Use  as  a  Decarbonizer. .   274 

Knocking,   Causes  of 193 

Knocking  Due  to  Spark  Position 200 


Lamp,    Inspection 132 

Laying  Up  a  Car   for  the  Winter 179 

Leakage   of   Gasoline 115 

Leaks  of  Air  into  Intake 271 

Leaks  in  the  Gasoline  System 105 

Leaks,    Gasoline 196 

Leaky    Pistons 187 

Lines  of  Force,  Magnetic 9 

Lining  a  Cone  Clutch 275 

Low-High  Tension  Magnetos 53 

Low-High    Tension    Magneto     Connec- 
tions       73 

Low   Tension   Ignition 13,  75 

Low   Tension    Magnetos 59 

Lubricants,     Automobile 121 

Lubricants,    Effect   of   Heat    on 120 

Lubricants,    Testing    of 120 

Lubrication,   Cold  Weather  Precautions 

Regarding    285 

Lubrication   of   Electric   Vehicles 206 

Lubrication  of  Engines 128 

Lubrication,   General   Instructions  on..  127 

Lubrication,    Importance   of 131 

Lubrication  of  Minor  Parts 133 

Lubrication,  Theory  of 118 

Lubrication  System,  Inspection  of 167 

Lubricators,    Care   of 191 

Lubricators,  Force  Feed 129 

Lubricators,    Pressure  Feed 131 


M 


Magnetic    Plug    System 78 

Magnetic    Vibrator 18 

Magnetism     8 

Magnetization,    Electric.  .  .' 9 

Magnets,    Permanent 9 


PAGE 

Magnets,    Properties   of 8 

Magneto,    The 49 

Magneto,  Circuit  Connections  for  High 

Tension    72 

Magneto,  Circuit  Connections  for  Low- 
High     73 

Magneto,  Fitting  a,  to  Opposed  Motor.  260 

Magneto,  The  High  Tension 53 

Magneto,  Inductor  Type 51 

Magneto,  The  Low-High  Tension 53 

Magneto,   Rotating  Armature  Type 51 

Magneto,    The    Synchronous 50 

Magneto   Make   and    Break,    The 52 

Magnetos,  Alternating  Current 60 

Magnetos,   Care  of 191 

Magnetos,    Derangements   of 57 

Magnetos,    Direct   Current 59 

Magnetos,    Governor    Driven 61 

Magnetos,   Low  Tension 59 

Magnetos,    Non-Synchronous 59 

Magnetos,  Timing  of 55 

Make  and  Break  Devices 52 

Make  and  Break  Ignition 75 

Master  Vibrator  Ignition  System 71 

Mats,    Preserving    Rubber 283 

Measuring  Pump   for  Gasoline 95 

Mechanical   Controlled   Carburetors 102 

Mechanical    Homogenizing   Devices....   101 

Mechanical    Ignition   Generators 49 

Missed   Explosions,    Detecting 193 

Missing,  How  to  Locate  and  Correct..   172 
Mixture,  Causes  of  Badly  Proportioned.  110 

Mixture,   Causes  of  Too   Lean Ill 

Mixture,  Its  Dependence  upon  Suction.  100 

Mixture,   Preheating  the 101 

Motor,   The (See   Engine) 

Motor   Generators 46 

Mud  Guards,  Injury  to  Tires  by.. 140 

Muffler,   Choking  of 116 

Multiple  Coil   Ignition  Connections 69 

Multiple  Jet  Carburetor,  The 104 

Multiple    Series    Connections 33 

Mutual    Induction 12 


N 


Non-Freezing    Solutions 285,  286 

Non-Synchronous  Magnetos 59 

Nuts,  Methods  of  Fastening 281 

Nuts,  Removing  Refractory 282 

Nuts,  Tightening  of 183 

Nuts,  Working   Loose   of 165 


Ohm « 

Ohm's     Law 6 

Oil  as  an  Anti-Freeze  Solution 289 

Oil,    Cylinder 123 

Oil,   Detrimental   Effect   on   Tires *  141 

Oil  Feeds,   Adjusting 13 

Oiling   Systems,  Care  of 191 


IV 


INDEX— Continued. 


PAGE 

Oiling    Systems,    Engine 128 

Oils  for  Bearing  Lubrication 125 

Oils,   Carbonization   of 120,  125 

Oils,  Desirable  Properties  of 120,  122 

Oils,  Flash  and  Cold  Tests  of 124 

Oils   for   Gear   Boxes 126 

Oils,   Storing  and  Handling  of 132 

Overhauling    a    Motor 262 

Overhauling    Cars 183 

Overheating,   Causes  of 194 

Overheating  a  Cause   of   Knocking.  . . .  193 

Overrich  Mixtures,  Causes  of 110 

Oxidizing  Brass  Parts 282 


Pantasote  Tops,   Cleaning 224 

Paralleling    Batteries 81 

Peining    246 

Piston  Pin,  Reboring  Hole  for 247 

Piston  Rings,  Inspection  of 268 

Piston   Rings,    Renewing 256,264 

Piston  Speed,  Computation  of 300 

Pistons,  Leaks  Past 187,  268 

Polarity,     Test    for 47,  208 

Polarization     7 

Popping  in  Carburetor,  Significance  of.   113 

Potential,    Difference   of 4 

Precautions  Against  Fire 226 

Pressure    Feed    Lubricators 131 

Pressure  Feed  Systems,  Defects  in 112 

Pressure,  Mean   Effective 300 

Primary  Circuit  Connections 26 

Pumps,    Tire 146,  152 

Punctures,     Patching 148 


Q 


Quick    Detachable   Tires 155 


R 


Radiators,    Washing    Out 188 

Railroad  Crossings,   Looking  Out  for..   201 
Rate  of   Charge  of  Vehicle  Batteries. .   209 

Rating  Engines,   Methods  of 298 

Rectifier,    The    Mercury 49 

Refitting    Bearings 237 

Repair     Suggestions 234 

Reserve    Batteries 80 

Resistance   3 

Reverse  Latch,  How  to  Make  a 277 

Rim     Cutting 148 

Rims,    Demountable 159 

Rough  Roads,  Comfort  on 203 

Rules  of  the  Road,   Observance  of 201 

Running  Gear,  Inspection  of 165 

Running  in  a  Motor 265 

Rust,  Effect  on  Tires 144 


PAGE 

Safety  Cans  for  Gasoline 93 

.Scales,    Hydrometer 87 

Screwdrivers 235 

Secondary    Commutators 28 

Seizing  of  Bearings 119 

Self  Contained  Oiling  System,  The 128 

Self  Induction 11 

Shaft,  Repairing  a  Cut 278 

Shipment  of  Cars,   Instructions  on 227 

Short   Circuits  in  Wiring 84 

Single  Coil  and  Distributor   System...     69 

Skidding,  How  to  Avoid 200,  293 

Slipping   of   Clutches 175 

Smooth-On,  Repairing  Cracks  with 254 

Soap,   Danger  of  Using  Too  Much 224 

Soldering     252 

Sounds,  Significance  of  Various 194 

Spare    Parts 168 

Spark   Advance  Cause  of  Knocking...   193 

Spark    Coil 13 

Spark   Generator,  The  Atwater  Kent . .     62 

Spark  Plug,  The 17 

Spark  Plug,  Construction  of 21 

Spark   Plugs,    Inspection   of 167 

Spark  Plugs,  Low  Tension 78 

Spark  Plugs,    Non-Sooting 23 

Spark  Plugs,     Repairing 86 

Spark  Plugs,    Sooting    of 22 

Spark  Plugs,  Testing 85 

Spark  Regulation,    Instructions    on 199 

Spark  Regulation,  Principle  of 26 

Spinning    of    Clutches 175 

Splash  System  of  Lubrication 128 

Springs,    Inspection    of 166 

Spring  Leaves,   Lubrication  of 183 

Sprockets,    Reversal   of 185 

Squeaking    Noises,    Significance   of ....   194 

Stalled  Car,  How  to  Extricate  a 205 

Starting    the    Motor 197 

Starting   a    Motor   in    Cold   Weather..  284 
Steering  Gears,  Care  of  Electric  Vehicle  207 

Steering  Gears,  Inspection  of 164 

Steering  Gears,   Overhauling  of 183 

Stones,    Effect  on  Tires 141 

Stops,    Inspection   During 196 

Storage    Battery,    The 34 

Storage  Battery,  Floated  on  the  Line..     61 
Storage  Batteries,   Cleaning  Vehicle...   211 

Storage    Batteries,    Ignition 45 

Storage  Batteries,  Summarized  Instruc- 
tions on 212 

Storage  Batteries,  Testing  Vehicle 211 

Storage  Cells,  Care  and  Repair  of 43 

Storage   Cells,    Charging 38 

Storage  Cells,  Derangements  of 40 

Storage  Cells,    Durability    of 38 

Storage  Cells,   Testing  with   Voltmeter.     67 

Storage  Cells,  Voltage  of 35 

Storage  and  Handling  of  Gasoline 93 


INDEX— Continued. 


Street  Cars,  Avoiding  Collisions   with.  202 

Sulphatation,  Prevention  of 212 

Supplies   to    Be    Carried 169 

Switches,  Defects  in  Battery 83 

Synchronized    Ignition 71 


Testing  Dry  Cells 66 

Throttle,   Control  of  Car  by..  198,  200,  203 

Timer,  The 21 

Timer,  Care  of  the 28,  190 

Timer,   Magneto  Type 16 

Timer,  Roller  Contact 27 

Timers,   Defects  in 81 

Timing   Gears,   Quieting  Worn 260 

Timing    of    Magnetos 55 

Timing  of  Valves 256 

Tire  Chains 290 

Tire  Pumps 146,  152 

Tire  Repair  Outfit,  The 150 

Tire  Sleeves,   Emergency 150 

Tire  Tools 151 

Tire  Treads,  Non-Slipping 290 

Tire  Valves,  Defects  in 146 

Tires 136 

Tires,  Affected  by  Oil 141 

Tires,   Affected  by  Rust 144 

Tires,  Anti-Skid  Devices  for 290 

Tires,        Attaching        and        Detaching 

Clincher  136 

Tires,  Care  of  Electric  Vehicle 208 

Tires,  Care  of  Spare 143 

Tires,   Causes  of  Wear 138 

Tires,   Detecting  Deflated 195 

Tires,  Effects  of  Improper  Attachment.  143 

Tires,   Heating  of 145 

Tires,  Jacking  Up 147 

Tires,   Inflation   Pressure  for 145,  146 

Tires,  Injured  by  Abrupt  Starting 141 

Tires,    Injured    by    Bad    Wheel    Align- 
ment   139 

Tires,  Injured  by  Brakes 140 

Tires,  Injured  by  Mud  Guards 140 

Tires,   Inspection  of 165 

Tires,   Quick  Detachable 155 

Tires,  Rim  Cutting  of 143 

Tires,  Road  Repairs  of 148 

Tires,  Should  Not  Be  Run  Deflated 142 

Tires,  Slow  Leaks  in 146 

Tires,   Steel   Studded 290 

Tires,  Tractive  Effort  of 297 

Tires,  Treatment  of  Cuts  in 149 

Tires,  Vulcanizing 148,  153 

Tires,   Winter   Storage  of 182 

Tops,  Methods  of  Cleaning 224 

Tool  Box   Equipment 234 

Traction,    Emergency   Methods    for    In- 
creasing      291 


Traction    Increasing   Devices 
Transmission,  Inspection  of. 


PAGE 
.  290 
.  167 


u 


Unisparker,    The 62 

Universal  Joint,  Temporary  Repair  of.   279 


V 


Valve  Actions,    Clearance  in 258 

Valve  Adjustments 255 

Valve  Caps,  Effect  of  Leaky 273 

Valve    Derangement,    Its    Influence    on 

Fuel   Economy 115 

Valve  Guide,  Restoring  a  Broken 247 

Valve  Guide,  Seating  a 249 

Valve  Guides,  Effect  of  Worn 272 

Valve  Mechanism,  Adjusting  the 188 

Valve  Stem  Wear,  Overcoming 259 

Valve   Tappets,    Noiseless 259 

Valves,  Care  of 255 

Valves,   Detecting  Leaks  in 267 

Valves,   Grinding  of 186,  255 

Valves,    Setting 256 

Vaporizing  Tube   Carburetor 102 

Vehicle  Batteries,  Running  Voltage  of.  210 

Vehicle   Speed   Chart 295 

Ventilating    Garages 217 

Venturi  Tube,  Use  of 101 

Vibrator,    The    Magnetic 18 

Vibrators,  Adjustment  of 20,  82,  190 

Vibrators,   Care  of 167 

Vibrators,  Defects  in 82 

Volt    6 

Voltage  of  Vehicle  Batteries 210 

Voltammeter,     The 66 

Voltmeter,    The 65 

Vulcanizer,  How  to  Make  a  Steam 153 

Vulcanizers,    Electric 154 

Vulcanizing  Tires 148 


W 


Washing    Car   Before    Laying   It    Up..   182 

Washing   Cars,   Hints  on 223 

Waste  of  Fuel,  Causes  of 114 

Watching  a  Car  on  the  Road 192 

Water  Jacket,  Patching  a  Broken 253 

Water  Jackets,   Repairing  Cracked 250 

Weak  Mixture,  Causes  of Ill 

Wheel,  Emergency  Repair  of  a  Broken.   281 

Wheels,    Improper   Alignment   of 139 

Wheels,   Speeds  with  Various  Sizes  of.    295 

Wind  Shields,  How  to  Clean 226 

Winter  Use  of  Cars 180,   284 

Wiring,    Defects    in 83 

Wood  Alcohol  Anti-Freeze  Solution 288 

Working  Loose  of  Nuts 165 

Wrenches,     Special 235 


VI 


A  Trial  Subscription 

for  The  Horseless  Age  will  con- 
vince you  that  it  is  worth  every 
cent  of  the  two  dollars  we  receive 
for  it.  Every  week  it  gives,  be= 
side  the  news  of  the  week,  reli= 
able  descriptions  of  new  cars  and 
parts ;  many  valuable  technical 
articles ;  also  a  resume  of  legis= 
lation  affecting  motorists. 

It  gives  the  automobile  owner 
and  the  engineer  just  the  infor- 
mation they  need — it  is  absolutely 
independent  and  unprejudiced, 
and  states  nothing  but  facts. 

Subscription  price,  six  months 
(trial),  $1.00;  one  year,  $2.00. 
Single  copies,  10  cents. 

THE  HORSELESS  AGE 

MOTOR   HALL,' 250  WEST  54th   ST. 
NEW  YORK 


"  The  Bosch  Magneto  is  the  make 
that  others  try  to  equal  in 
quality." 

— Springfield  Republican. 

More  than  150  makers  of  Ameri- 
can cars  equip  with  Bosch  Mag- 
neto. More  than  87  per  cent,  of 
high  grade  American  cars  are  so 
'  equipped,  and  a  proportionate 
number  of  motorcycles,  motor 
boats  and  aeroplanes. 

Inform  yourself,  and  when  buying 
you'll  always  specify  " Bosch 
Ignition." 

A  copy  of  "  The  Bosch  News,"  an 
illustrated  magazine,  will  be  sent 
on  request. 


Bosch  Magneto  Co. 

223-225  W.  46th  St.,  New  York 

Chicago  Branch  :  San  Francisco  Branch  : 

1253  Michigan  Ave.  357  Van  Ness  Ave. 

Detroit  Branch :  870  Woodward  Ave. 


TL 


THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Barbara 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW. 


If  your    dealer    hasn't 
MONOGRAM    OIL,     write 


COLUMBIA  LUBRICANTS  CO. 
OF  NEW  YORK 

116  BROAD  STREET  NEW  YORK  CITY 


I 


;  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACIl 


A     000  587  567     9 


HOMO 


More  Power 

Less  Gasoline 

Steady  Pull 


More  Speed 

Less  Vibration 

Less  Heat 


,  Makes  a  four  cylinder  run  like  a  six  cylinder 

on  the  gasoline  consumed  by  a  two  cylinder 

A   MEANS  OF  PERFECT  CARBURATION 

Everyone  who  has  driven  an  Automobile,  a  M9tor  Boat  or  a  Motorcycle,  has 
I    observed  that  the  power  and  smooth  running  qualities  of  gasoline  engines  dimin- 
ish at  a  rate  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  diminished  speed.     This  is  partly  due 
l    to  the  difficulty  of  so  constructing  a   carburetor  as  to  maintain  the  proper  pro- 
portion of  gasoline  spray  to  air  under  varying  conditions. 

But  there  are  two  other  elements  which  enter  into  this  problem  of  the  hydro- 
carbon engine,  namely; 


EVAPORATION  and  HOMOGENEITY 


The  more  thorough  the  evaporation 


ration  of  the  gasoline  spray,  the  more  easily  is 
re   even   the  distribution   of   the   gasoline   in   the 


» 

\ 

i     the   air   carbureted;" and   th 

f    carbureted  air,  the  greater  the  efficiency   of  the  explosion. 

The  HOMO  is  a  demonstrable  solution  of  the  difficulties  presented  in  the 
case  of  these  two  important  factors. 

The  HOMO  consists  of  a  housing  or  casing  so  constructed  as  to  be  inserted 
between  the  carburetor  and  the  intake  manifold  of  the  engine.  Inside  of  this 
housing  is  a  mesh  wheel  which  revolves  upon  annular  ball  bearings. 

This  wheel  is  composed  of  fan  blades  and  wire  mesh  of  a  given  degree  of 
coarseness. 

The  mixture  of  gasoline  spray  and  air  in  the  carburetor  is  drawn  by  the 
engine  through  this  mesh-fan-wheel. 

The  fan  blades  cause  the  wheel  to  revolve  at  high  speed,  and  the  mixture  must 
pass  through  the  flying  mesh,  which,  by  violent  impact,  breaks  up  the  particles 
of  gasoline  and  enforces  evaporation.  In  the  consequent  agitation,  the  air  be- 
comes evenly  carbureted  with  this  evaporated  gasoline. 


THE 


INCREASED  POWER—  25  to  40  PER 
LESS  GASOLINE  AND  LESS  HEAT— 


RESULT    IS 

PER  CENT. 

25  to  40  PER  CENT. 


—  2      o  40  . 

Ihe  excess  of  gasoline  required,  where  the  carbureting  is  not  thoroughly  and 
own   the   power  and  causes  heat  because  of 


homogeneously  accomplished, 


T^?f  expansion  due  to  slower  combustion.     This  is  eliminated. 

INCREASED  SPEED — Because  of  quicker  expansion  due  to  more  rapid  com- 
bustion. 

LESS  GEAR  CHANGING— Because  you  can  "stay  on  the  high,"  with  the  in- 
creased power,  at  low  speeds 

LESS   VIBRATION— Because  of  the  even  explosions. 

LESS  VALVE  GRINDING— Because  of  reduced  heat  and  impossibility  of 
getting  raw  gasoline  on  the  valves. 

GET    DESCRIPTIVE    MATTER,    INOW  ! 

GASOLINE  MOTOR  EFFICIENCY  COMPANY  ] 

3  EXCHANGE  PLACE,  JERSEY  CITY,  N.  J.,  U.  S.  A. 


